LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


T 


HE  POCKET  BOOK  OF 
REFRIGERATION  AND 
ICE-MAKING 


EDITED   BY 


A.   J.   WALLIS-TAYLER,    C.E. 


ASSOC.    MEMB.    INST.    C.E. 


AUTHOR  OF  "REFRIGERATING  AND  ICE-MAKING  MACHINERY,"  "REFRIGER ATJOH 

COLD   STORAGE  AND   ICE-MAKING,"   ETC.   ETC. 


JFiftfj  dHittton, 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  THIRTY-ONE  DIAGRAMS 


NEW  YORK 

THE    NORMAN    W.    HENLEY 
PUBLISHING   COMPANY 

132  NASSAU  STREET 
1909 


/\ 


PUBLISHERS'  PREFACE. 

THE  rapid  extension  of  the  use  of  Refrige- 
rating and  Ice-making  Machinery,  in  recent 
years,  with  the  establishment  in  important 
centres  of  Cold  Stores  and  Ice  Factories,  has  led 
to  the  demand  for  a  handy  POCKET-BOOK  which 
should  contain  in  an  accessible  form  such  formulae, 
data,  tables,  and  memoranda  as  are  constantly  re- 
quired by  persons  engaged  or  interested  in  the 
industries  connected  with  Refrigeration  and  Cold 
Storage.  The  present  little  volume  (which,  since 
its  first  issue,  has  been  revised  and  enlarged  by  the 
addition  of  fresh  matter  and  diagrams)  is  designed 
to  meet  this  demand. 

The  contents  of  the  POCKET-BOOK  may  be  briefly 
described  as  comprising  amongst  other  matter  the 
subjects  of  Refrigeration  (in  outline);  Cold  Storage; 
Ice-making  and  the  Storing  of  Ice ;  Insulation ; 

201355 


iv  PUBLISHERS'  PREFACE. 

the  Testing  and  Management  of  Refrigerating 
Machinery ;  General  Tables  and  Memoranda,  etc., 
etc.  There  is  also  a  carefully  prepared  Index, 
whereby  reference  may  readily  be  made  to  the 
information  furnished  upon  any  particular  subject 


TABLE  OF  PRINCIPAL  CONTENTS. 


SECTION    I. 

REFRIGERATION  IN  GENERAL  :  The  Mechanical  Theory  of 
Heat — Refrigerating  Apparatus — The  Chemical  or 
Liquefaction  Process — Cold-air  Machines — Vacuum 
Machines — Absorption  Machines— The  Compression 
Machine — The  Application  of  the  Entropy,  or  Theta-phi, 
Diagram  to  Refrigerating  Machines — The  Comparative 
Efficiency  of  various  Refrigerating  Machines — The  Pro- 
duction of  very  Low  Temperatures — Capacity  of  Re- 
frigerating Machines — Approximate  Allowance  per  Ton 
Capacity  to  be  made  when  selecting  a  Machine  for 
Refrigerating  Purposes — Condensers — The  Forecooler 
— The  Analyser — The  Liquid  Receiver — Ether  Machines 
— Tables,  etc.  1-67 

SECTION   II. 

COLD  STORAGE:  Amount  of  Refrigeration  required — Amount 
of  Refrigerating  Pipes  necessary  for  Chilling,  Storage, 
and  Freezing-chambers — Number  of  cubic  feet  covered 
by  i -ton  Refrigerating  Capacity  for  Twenty-four  Hours 
— Estimate  of  Refrigeration  in  Breweries— Refrigerating 
Capacity  in  B.T.U.  required  per  cubic  foot  of  Storage 
Room  in  Twenty-four  Hours — Refrigerating  Capacities 
— Variation  in  Capacity  of  a  Refrigerating  Machine, 
etc.,  and  Economy  of  Direct  Expansion — Cubic  feet 
of  Ammonia  Gas  per  Minute  to  produce  one  ton  of 
Refrigeration  per  Day — Determination  of  Moisture  in 
Air — Psychrometers — Hygrometers — Correct  Relative 
Humidity  for  a  Given  Temperature  in  Egg  Rooms — 
Specific  Heat  and  Composition  of  Victuals — Tempera- 
tures adapted  for  the  Cold  Storage  of  Various  Articles — 
Mean  Temperature  of  Principal  Cities  of  the  World — 
Cold  Storage  Charges  (England) — Conditions  of  Deposit 
and  Regulations — Cold  Storage  Charges  (United  States) 
— Terms  of  Payment  of  Cold  Storage  and  Freezing 
Rates — Cold  Storage  Charges  (France) — Tables,  etc.  68-99 

SECTION    III. 

ICE-MAKING  AND  STORING  ICE:  Ice-making  — Pure 
Water — Simple  Rules  for  ascertaining  the  Quality  of 


VI  CONTENTS. 

So-called  Mineral  Water  —  Testing  by  Reagents  — 
Freezing  Tank  or  Box — Brine  for  Use  in  Refrigerating 
and  Ice-making  Plants— Solutions  of  Chloride  of 
Calcium — Comparison  of  Various  Hydrometer  Scales 
—  Freezing  Times  for  Different  Temperatures  and 
Thicknesses  of  Can  Ice — Storing  Ice — Tables,  etc.  100-114 

SECTION    IV. 

INSULATION  :  Results  of  Tests  to  determine  the  Non- 
conductive  Values  of  Different  Materials — Heat  in 
Units  transmitted  per  Square  Foot  per  Hour  through 
Various  Substances — Walls  for  Cold  Stores — Divisional 
Partitions  for  Cold  Stores — Flooring  for  Cold  Stores — 
Flooring  for  Ice  Houses — Ceilings  for  Cold  Stores  and 
Ice  Houses — Door  Insulation — Window  Insulation — 
Tank  Insulation — Tables,  etc 115-135 

SECTION   V. 

TESTING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  REFRIGERATING  MA- 
CHINERY :  Testing — Interpretation  of  Compressor 
Diagram  —  Management  of  Ammonia  Compression 
Machines — Leaks  in  Ammonia  Apparatus — Leaks  in 
Carbonic  Acid  Machines — Lubrication  of  Refrigerating 
Machinery — Form- for  Engineer's  Daily  Report — Light- 
ing Cold  Stores  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  136-150 

SECTION   VI. 

GENERAL  TABLES  AND  MEMORANDA  :  Experiments  in 
Wort  Cooling — Tension  of  Aqueous  Vapour — Physical 
Constant  of  Gases — Properties  of  Saturated  Steam — 
Heat  of  Combustion  of  Various  Fuels — Specific  Heat 
of  Water  at  Various  Temperatures — Specific  Heat  of 
Metals — Specific  Heat  of  Liquids — Specific  Heat  of 
Gases — Thermal  Units — Loss  of  Pressure  by  Friction  of 
Compressed  Air — Friction  of  Air  in  Tubes — Coefficients 
for  Efflux  of  Air  from  Orifices — Centrifugal  Fans  — 
Hydraulics — Useful  Information 151-175 


INDEX 177-184 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  *AGE 

1.  Diagram  illustrating  Cold-air  Cycle          6 

2.  Diagram  illustrating  Operation  of  Absorption  Machine  8 

3.  Diagram  illustrating  Cycle  wherein  a  Volatile  Liquid  and 

Compression  are  employed          9 

4.  Diagram    illustrating   Theoretically   Perfect    Reversible 

Cycle,  with  Pressure  Volume  Ordinates  13 

5.  Diagram   illustrating   Theoretically    Perfect    Reversible 

Cycle,  with  Temperature  Entropy  Ordinates 13 

6, 7.  Diagrams   illustrating  Operations  in  Air  Refrigerators 

with  Open  Cycle    14 

8.  Entropy  Diagram,  showing  application  to  the  Cold-air 

Cycle  15 

9.  Entropy  Diagram  for  i  Ib.  of  Saturated  Ammonia  Vapour       16 

10.  Entropy  Diagram  for  i  Ib.  of  Saturated  Carbonic  Acid 

Vapour         16 

11.  Entropy  Diagram,  showing  Working  Cycle  for  i  Ib.  of 

Saturated  Ammonia  Vapour       18 

12.  Entropy  Diagram,  showing  Working  Cycle  for  i  Ib.  of 

Saturated  Carbonic  Acid  Vapour          19 

13.  Diagram  showing  Loss  of  Efficiency  with  Ammonia  and 

Carbonic  Acid  owing  to  use  of  Expansion  Valve       ...       21 

14.  Diagram  showing  Percentage  of  Efficiency  of  Working 

Cycle  of  Carbonic  Acid  as  compared  with  Ammonia          21 

15.  Diagram  showing  Loss  of  Efficiency  with  Brine  Circula- 

tion compared  with  Direct  Expansion  of  Ammonia  ...       23 

16.  Diagram    showing   Relative   Compressor   Capacity  with 

Ammonia  at  Various  Expansion  Pressures  and  Tempe- 
ratures                 23 


Vlll  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE 

17.  Diagram   showing  Hampson's  Apparatus  for  the   pro- 

duction of  very  Low  Temperatures        25 

1 8.  Diagram  showing  Linde's  Apparatus  for  the  production 

of  very  Low  Temperatures  25 

19.  20.  Diagrams  showing  Curves  of  Latent  Heat  of  Vapori- 

sation, and  Curves  of  Absolute  Pressure  for  Saturated 
Vapours  of  Ammonia,  Sulphurous  Acid,  and  Carbonic 
Acid 48 

21.  Diagram  giving  Efficiency  Curves  of  a  Perfect  Refrige- 

rating Machine  at  Various  Limits  of  Temperature     ...       64 

22.  Diagram  showing  Variation  in  Capacity,  Cost  of  Fuel, 

and  Work  Required,  of  a  Refrigerating  Machine       ...       74 

23.  Diagram  from  Compressor  with  Parts  in  Good  Order    ...     139 

24.  Diagram  from  Compressor  with  an  Excessive  Amount  of 

Clearance 139 

25.  Diagram  from  Compressor  indicating  the  Binding  of  the 

Pressure  Valve       139 

26.  Diagram  from  Compressor  indicating  too  great  a  Resist- 

ance in  the  Pressure  and  Suction  Valves          139 

27.  Diagram  from  Compressor  indicating  the  Binding  of  the 

Suction  Valve        140 

28.  Diagram  from  Compressor  indicating  Leaking  of  Com- 

pressor Valves        140 

29.  Diagram  from  Compressor  indicating  Defective  Packing 

of  Piston      140 

30.  Diagram  illustrating  Arrangement  of  Electric  Lighting 

on  the  Series  Circuit  System       150 

31.  Diagram  illustrating  Arrangement  of  Electric  Lighting 

on  the  Parallel  Circuit  System 150 


THE  POCKET-BOOK  OF 
REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


SECTION  I. 
REFRIGERATION     IN     GENERAL. 

THE  MECHANICAL  THEORY  OF  HEAT. 

HEAT  pervades  every  substance  known.  Lord  Armstrong 
said,  "According  to  the  new  theory,  heat  is  an  internal 
motion  of  molecules,  capable  of  being  communicated  from 
the  molecules  of  one  body  to  those  of  another;  the  result 
of  this  imparted  motion  being  either  an  increase  of  tempera- 
ture or  the  performance  of  work."  The  result  of  Joule's 
experiments  was  to  demonstrate  that  under  all  circum- 
stances the  quantity  of  heat  generated  by  the  same  amount 
of  force  is  fixed  and  invariable.  Professor  Clerk  Maxwell 
was  of  the  opinion  that  heat,  considered  with  respect  to 
its  power  of  warming  things  and  changing  their  state,  is  a 
quantity  strictly  capable  of  measurement,  and  not  subject 
to  any  variation  of  quality  or  kind. 

The  deductions  to  be  arrived  at  on  accepting  this  theory 
are,  that  if  heat  is  a  motion  it  must  be  an  eternal  one  ;  the 
generation  of  heat  in  any  substance  must  be  additional  to 
the  heat  that  has  been  already  generated  in  it  or  transferred 
thereto;  heat  can  be  lost  or  done  away  with  to  a  degree 
only,  as  it  is  always  of  uniform  quality,  and  it  follows 
therefore  that  its  annihilation  must  in  every  case  be  a 
definite  part  of  the  entire  amount,  and  cannot  be  a  reduction 
in  quality. 

B 


2  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 

The  rational  conclusion  to  be  come  to  from  the  above  is 
that  the  reduction  of  temperature  or  cooling  of  any  substance 
is  simply  the  withdrawal  or  annihilation  of  a  greater  or 
lesser  part  of  its  own  heat. 

Refrigeration  may  be  defined  as  the  art  of  reducing 
the  temperature  of  any  body,  or  of  maintaining  the  said 
temperature  below  that  of  the  atmosphere. 


REFRIGERATING  APPARATUS. 

Widely,  refrigerating  apparatus  may  be  classed  under  two 
main  heads,  viz.  chemical  and  mechanical. 

In  the  first,  or  apparatus  working  on  the  chemical  system, 
the  more  or  less  rapid  dissolution  of  a  solid  is  utilised  to 
abstract  heat,  and  it  is  generally  designated  the  liquefaction 
process. 

The  second,  or  mechanical  process,  comprises  apparatus 
operating  on  four  different  systems,  viz. :  cold-air  machines, 
in  which  the  air  is  first  compressed,  then  cooled,  and 
afterwards  permitted  to  expand  whilst  doing  work,  that 
is  to  say,  practically,  by  first  applying  heat  to  ultimately 
produce  cold;  vacuum  machines,  wherein  the  evaporation 
of  a  portion  of  the  liquid  to  be  cooled,  assisted  by  the 
action  of  an  air-pump,  and  of  sulphuric  acid,  effects 
the  abstraction  of  heat ;  absorption  machines,  in  which  the 
abstraction  of  heat  is  effected  by  the  evaporation  of  a 
separate  refrigerating  agent  of  a  more  or  less  volatile 
nature,  under  the  direct  action  of  heat,  which  agent  again 
enters  into  solution  with  a  liquid;  and  lastly,  compression 
machines,  wherein  the  abstraction  of  heat  is  effected  by  the 
evaporation  of  a  separate  refrigerating  agent  of  a  more  or 
less  volatile  nature,  which  agent  is  subsequently  restored  to 
its  original  physical  condition  by  mechanical  compression 
and  cooling. 


THE  CHEMICAL  OR  LIQUEFACTION  PROCESS. 

During  the  change  of  the  physical  condition  of  a  sub- 
stance, for  instance,  whilst  it  is  passing  from  a  solid  to  a 
liquid  form,  the  cohesive  force  is  overcome  by  energy  in  the 


REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL.  3 

form  of  heat,  and  this  may  be  brought  about  without  change 
in  sensible  temperature,  provided  the  heat  be  absorbed 
as  fast  as  it  is  supplied  from  the  exterior,  as  in  the  case 
of  melting  ice,  the  temperature  of  which  remains  constant 
at  32°  Fahr.,  any  increase  or  decrease  in  the  heat  supplied 
simply  hastening  or  retarding  the  rate  of  melting,  but  in 
no  way  affecting  the  temperature.  Mixtures  composed  of 
some  salts  with  water  or  acids,  and  of  certain  salts  with 
ice,  however,  forming  liquids  having  freezing  points  lower 
than  the  original  temperatures  of  the  mixtures,  act  in  a 
different  manner,  the  tendency  to  pass  into  the  liquid  form 
being  in  this  case  so  strong  that  a  more  rapid  absorption 
of  heat  takes  place  than  is  capable  of  being  supplied  from 
without,  and  consequently  a  consumption  takes  place  of 
the  store  of  heat  of  the  melting  substances  themselves. 
The  natural  result  of  this  action  is  that  the  temperature 
of  the  latter  falls,  until  such  time  as  the  rate  of  melting 
and  the  rate  at  which  heat  is  supplied  from  the  exterior 
become  equalised.  The  degree  to  which  the  temperature 
can  be  lowered  depends  to  a  certain  extent  on  the  state 
of  hydration  of  the  salt  and  the  percentage  of  it  present  in 
the  mixture.  The  salts  used  in  ordinary  freezing  mixtures 
are  generally  those  of  certain  alkalies  which  almost  ex- 
clusively possess  the  necessary  degree  of  solubility  at  low 
temperatures,  and  the  following  table  gives  the  mixtures 
usually  employed : — 


REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 
TABLE  OF  PRINCIPAL  FREEZING  MIXTURES. 


COMPOSITION  OF  FREEZING  MIXTURES. 

Reduction  of 
temperature  in 
degrees  Fahr. 

lountof 
1  in  de- 
es Fahr. 

From 

To 

<<*& 

Snow  or  pounded  ice  2  parts  ;  muriate  of  soda  I 

+  32 
+  32 
+  32 
+  32 
+  32 
+  32 
+  32 
+  32 
+  32 

-10 

-18 
-40 
-68 

+  50 
+  50 

+  50 

+  50 
+  50 

-r50 

+  50 

+  50 
+  50 

+  50 

-  5 

—  12 

-18 

-25 
-40 

o 

-50 
-23 

-27 
-30 
-40 

-50 
-51 

-  5 

—  12 

-18 
-25 

-56 
-25 
-73 
-91 

+  4 
+  4 

+  4 
+  3 
—  o 

-  3 

—  7 

—  TO 
—  12 

-14 

72 
32 
82 

55 
59 

62 

L2 
83 

46 

7 
33 
23 

46 

46 

46 
47 
50 
53 

57 

60 
62 

64 

Snow  5  ;   muriate  of  sodium  2  ;  munate  of  am- 
monia I             .  .         .  .         .  . 
Snow  24  ;  muriate  of  sodium  10  ;  muriate  of  am- 
monia 5  ;  nitrate  of  potash  5 
Snow  12  ;  muriate  of  sodium  5;  nitrate  of  am- 

Snow  4  ;  muriate  of  lime  5 
Snow  I  ;  chloride  of  sodium  or  common  salt  I     . 
Snow  2  ;  muriate  of  lime  crystallized  3    .  . 
Snow  3  ;  dilute  sulphuric  acid  2    .  . 
Snow  3  ;  hydrochloric  acid  5 
Snow  7  ;  dilute  nitric  acid  4          .  .         .  . 
Snow  8  ;  chloride  of  calcium  5 
Snow  2  ;  chloride  of  calcium  crystallized  3 

Snow  2  ;  chloride  of  sodium  I 
Snow  5  ;  chloride  of  sodium  2  ;  chloride  of  am- 
monia i 
Snow  14;  chloride  of  sodium  10;  chloride  of  am- 
monia 5  ;  nitrate  of  potassium  5 
Snow  12  ;   chloride  of  sodium  5  ;  nitrate  of  am- 
monia 5 
Snow  2  ;   dilute  sulphuric  acid  I  ;   dilute  nitric 
acid  i 

Snow  12  ;  common  salt  5  ;  nitrate  of  ammonia  5 
Snow  i  ;  muriate  of  lime  3            , 
Snow  8  ;  dilute  sulphuric  acid  10  .  . 
Chloride  of  ammonia  5  ;  nitrate  of  potassium  5  ; 
water  16            
Nitrate  of  ammonia  I  ;  water  I     
Chloride  of  ammonia  5  ;  nitrate  of  potassium  5  ; 
sulphate  of  sodium  8  ;  water  16 
Sulphate  of  spdium  5  ;  dilute  sulphuric  acid  4    .  . 
Sulphate  of  sodium  8  ;  hydrochloric  acid  9 
Nitrate  of  sodium  3  ;  dilute  nitric  acid  2 
Nitrate  of  ammonia  I  ;   carbonate  of  sodium  I  ; 
water  i   .  . 

Sulphate  of  sodium  6  ;   chloride  of  ammonia  4  ; 
nitrate  of  potassium  2  ;  dilute  nitric  acid  4  .  . 
Phosphate  of  sodium  9  ;  dilute  nitric  acid  4 
Sulphate  of  sodium  6  ;   nitrate  of  ammonia  5  ; 
-   dilute  nitric  acid  4       

REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL. 
TABLE  OF  PRINCIPAL  FREEZING  MIXTURES— Continued. 


r 

COMPOSITION  OF  FREEZING  MIXTURES. 
(Materials  previously  cooled.) 

Reduction  of 
temperature  in 
degrees  Fahr. 

Amount  of 
fall  in  de- 
grees Fahr. 

From 

To 

Phosphate  of  sodium  5  ;  nitrate  of  ammonia  3 

0 

-34 

+  20 
0 
-IS 

—  IO 

o 

—  20 
-40 

-68 

-34 

-So 
-48 
-66 
-68 

-56 

-46 
-60 

-73 
-91 

34 

16 
68 
66 
53 

46 
46 
40 
33 
.23 

Phosphate  of  sodium  3  ;  nitrate  of  ammonia  2 

Snow  3  ;  muriate  of  lime  4 
Snow  i  ;  muriate  of  lime  crystallized  2    .  . 
Snow  2  ;  muriate  of  lime  3 
bnow  8  ;    dilute  sulphuric  acid  3  ;    dilute  nitri 

Snow  3  ;  dilute  nitric  acid  2           .  .         .  .         , 
Snow  i  ;  dilute  sulphuric  acid  I    .  . 
Snow  2  ;  muriate  of  lime  crystallized  3    .  . 
Snow  8  ;  dilute  sulphuric  acid  10  

.     COLD-AIR  MACHINES. 

This  class  of  machine  is  based  upon  one  of  the  simplest 
principles  of  physics,  that  is  to  say,  that  the  compression 
of  air  or  other  gas  generates  heat,  and  the  subsequent 
expansion  of  this  air  or  gas,  cold.  Mechanical  work  and 
heat  being  respectively  convertible,  it  naturally  follows  that 
if  air  or  other  gas  be  caused  to  perform  certain  work  on  a 
piston  during  expansion,  the  performance  of  this  work  will 
cause  its  store  of  caloric  to  become  exhausted  to  a  degree 
equal  to  the  thermal  equivalent  of  the  work  done,  the  air 
or  other  gas  after  expansion  being  at  a  lower  temperature 
than  that  at  which  it  was  before  expansion ;  that  is,  of  course, 
provided  always  that  no  heat  be  supplied  from  any  source 
to  restore  that  so  lost. 

Cold-air  machines  all  operate  on  the  same  general 
principle  (see  diagram,  Fig.  i).  The  air  is  first  com- 
pressed in  a  compressor,  and  the  heat  which  is  generated 
by  this  compression  is  removed  by  means  of  water,  the 
cold  air  produced  by  expansion  being  employed  for 
refrigeration.  But  there  have  been  several  notable 


6  REFRIGERATION   AND   ICE-MAKING. 

improvements  during  the  past  few  years,  practically  removing 
most  of  the  old  defects,  which  make  them  compare  favour- 
ably, with  machines  using  more  or  less  volatile  agents, 
Cole's  "  Arctic "  Machine  being  one  that  embodies  im- 
portant improvements. 

The  cycle  of  operations  may  be  a  perfect  or  closed  one 
when  the  same  air  is  in  constant  circulation,  or  where  it  is 
desirable  to  have  pure  air  in  the  storage  chambers,  the  air 
is  rejected  after  once  passing  through  the  cycle,  and  fresh 
air  is  admitted  at  each  stroke  of  the  compressor. 

Air  machines,  working  at  a  comparatively  low  pressure, 
necessitate  the  compression  and  expansion  cylinders  being 
of  a  larger  size  than  in  compression  machines  using  higher 


WASTE: 


FIG.  i.— Diagram  illustrating  cold-air  cycle. 

pressures,  but  the  total  actual  space  occupied  is  no  more, 
as  cold-air  machines  are  generally  self-contained,  there 
being  no  additional  apparatus  required  in  the  form  of  ex- 
pansion pipes,  condensers,  circulating  pumps,  etc.,  obviously, 
therefore,  a  simple,  cold-air  system,  in  which  the  defects 
of  the  old  machines  have  been  eliminated,  has  much  to 
recommend  it. 

In  the  early  days  of  cold  air  it  was  considered  a  disad- 
vantage and  uneconomical  to  reduce  air  to  a  very  low 
temperature ;  but  these  objections  are  now  entirely  overcome 
by  the  improved  methods  of  making  the  cold-air  ducts  or 
trunking,  by  which  the  loss  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and 
is  almost  inappreciable. 


REFRIGERATION  IN   GENERAL. 


VACUUM  MACHINES. 

Vacuum  machines,  together  with  absorption  machines, 
compression  machines,  and  binary,  or  dual,  or  mixed, 
absorption  and  compression  machines,  all  come  under  the 
category  of  vaporisation  machines,  that  is  to  say,  of 
machines  which  practically  utilise  the  heat  of  vaporisation 
for  purposes  of  refrigeration.  In  a  vacuum  machine  the 
refrigerating  agent  or  medium  is,  as  has  been  already 
stated,  water,  its  volatilisation  at  a  temperature  sufficiently 
low  being  effected  by  the  means  of  a  vacuum  pump,  assisted 
by  sulphuric  acid,  by  which  the  vapours  are  absorbed  as 
soon  as  they  are  formed,  and  in  this  manner  rendering  the 
action  of  the  vacuum  very  effective.  The  sulphuric  acid 
can  be  again  concentrated  for  use,  and  so  on  ad  infinitum. 


ABSORPTION  MACHINES. 

In  its  action  the  absorption  machine  resembles  the 
vacuum  machine,  with  this  difference,  however,  that  in- 
stead of  water,  some  such  liquid  as  anhydrous  ammonia 
(NH3),  capable  of  evaporating  at  a  low  temperature  with- 
out the  assistance  of  a  vacuum,  is  employed  as  a  refrigerat- 
ing agent  or  medium.  Instead  of  sulphuric  acid  being 
employed  to  absorb  the  vapour,  water  is  employed  for  that 
purpose,  and  from  this  water  the  vapour  is  again  separated 
by  distillation  and  is  liquefied  by  the  pressure  which  takes 
place  in  the  still,  and  by  the  action  of  the  condensing 
water.  (See  diagram,  Fig.  2.) 

In  this  manner  absorption  machines  can  be  operated 
continuously,  the  ammonia  solution  or  aqua  ammonia  being 
passed  into  a  still  or  generator,  usually  heated  by  a  steam 
coil  or  worm,  and  the  ammonia  vapour  being  conducted 
thence  to  a  condenser  in  which  it  is  cooled  and  becomes 
liquefied  into  anhydrous  ammonia  owing  to  the  pressure 
due  to  its  own  accumulation.  The  anhydrous  ammonia 
is  kept  in  a  liquid  ammonia  receiver,  from  which  it  passes 
to  the  coils  of  the  refrigerator  wherein  it  expands  or 
evaporates,  effecting  an  amount  of  refrigeration  corre- 
sponding to  its  heat  of  vaporisation.  After  performing 


8 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


this  duty  the  vapour  enters  the  absorber  and  is  there 
brought  into  contact  with  the  weak  solution  of  ammonia 
coming  from  the  bottom  of  the  still,  and  is  reabsorbed 
by  it  with  generation  of  heat,  which  latter  is  removed  by 
the  cooling  water.  Both  the  rich  and  cold  solution  of 
ammonia  coming  from  the  absorber  and  going  to  the  still, 
as  well  as  the  poor  and  hot  solution  coming  from  the  still 


FIG.  2. — Diagram  illustrating  operation  of  absorption  machine. 

and  going  to  the  absorber,  are  passed  through  a  device 
called  an  interchanger,  by  which  their  temperatures  are 
equalised.  The  rich  ammonia  solution  is  pumped  from 
the  absorber  into  the  still  or  generator. 


THE  COMPRESSION  MACHINE. 

Machines  operating  on  the  compression  principle  (see 
diagram,  Fig.  3)  utilise  the  latent  heat  of  vaporisation  of 
the  substances  having  a  low  boiling  point,  and,  whatever 
the  refrigerating  agent  or  medium  that  may  be  employed, 
they  all  practically  act  in  the  same  manner;  that  is  to  say, 
the  vapour  or  gas  due  to  the  expansion  or  vaporisation  of 
the  refrigerating  agent  or  medium,  in  the  refrigerating  or 
expansion  coils,  passes  into  a  compressor  operated  by  any 
suitable  power  by  which  the  gas  or  vapour  is  forced  into  the 


REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL.  9 

coils  of  the  condenser,  and  is  there  liquefied  by  the  aid  of 
the  cooling  water;  the  liquid  thus  formed  then  enters  a 
liquid  receiver,  from  which  it  is  allowed  to  pass  to  the 
refrigerating  coils  through  an  expansion  or  flash  valve  or 
cock,  by  which  the  desired  regulation  can  be  effected.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  process  is  a  continuous  one,  represent- 
ing a  complete  cycle  of  operations,  inasmuch  as  the  ope- 
rating agent  or  medium  periodically  returns  to  its  primary 
condition  in  a  way  that  will  more  or  less  approach  reversi- 
bility in  accordance  with  the  method  of  working  peculiar  to 
each  machine. 


EXPANSION    VALVE. 

FIG.  3.— Diagram  illustrating  cycle  wherein  a  volatile  liquid  and  compression  are 
employed. 

A  perfect  reversible  compression  system  comprises  the 
following  changes,  viz. :  An  isothermal  change  due  to  the 
vaporisation  or  gasification  of  the  refrigerating  agent  or 
medium  at  the  constant  temperature  of  the  refrigerator; 
an  adiabatic  change,  caused  by  the  compression  of  the 
vapour  or  gas  without  the  addition  of  heat;  a  second 
isothermal  change,  due  to  the  condensation  of  the  com- 
pressed gas  or  vapour  at  the  constant  temperature  of  the 
condenser;  and,  finally,  a  second  adiabatic  change,  owing 
to  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  being  reduced  from  that  of 
the  condenser  to  that  of  the  refrigerator  by  a  portion  of  the 
liquid  being  vaporised  or  gasified,  and  performing  work  by 
moving  a  piston,  thus  once  more  returning  the  refrigerating 


10  REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 

medium  or  agent  to  its  primary  state,  and  thereby  com- 
pleting the  cycle.  It  is  presumed  that  the  above  changes 
take  place  in  such  a  manner  that  the  transfers  of  heat 
follow  infinitesimal  variations  in  temperature  only,  and  the 
changes  in  volume  occur  in  connection  with  infinitesimal 
variations  of  pressure.  The  changes  can  be  likewise  carried 
out  in  the  obverse  direction,  the  cycle  being  therefore  a 
reversible  one,  and  a  refrigerating  machine,  which,  it  may 
here  be  observed,  is  the  exact  obverse  to  a  heat  engine, 
operated  on  this  plan,  will  give  as  economical  results  as  it 
is  possible  to  obtain  in  practice. 

For  this  reason  it  has  been  observed  by  Professor  J.  E. 
Siebel  that  the  heat  H,  removed  by  a  refrigerating  appara- 
tus operated  strictly  on  the  above-mentioned  bases,  has  a 
certain  and  well-defined  relation  to  the  work  or  mechanical 
power,  W,  required  to  lift  the  same  in  the  cycle  of  opera- 
tion. If,  in  a  refrigerating  machine  so  operated,  ^  is  the 
temperature  of  the  condenser  and  /0  the  temperature  of  the 
refrigerator  (T!  and  T0  designating  the  corresponding  abso- 
lute temperatures),  thermodynamics  teach  us  that  the  follow- 
ing relations  exist : — 

H  _  ;0  +  460  _        T! 

w=    *-*  "Ti-To 

Thermodynamically  speaking,  says  the  same  authority, 
there  should  be  no  difference  in  economy  on  account  of  the 
nature  of  the  circulating  fluid  if  a  perfect  cycle  of  operation 
was  carried  out ;  but  practically,  this  is  not  done.  In  all 
compression  machines,  the  fourth  operation,  the  reduction 
of  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  while  doing  work,  is  not 
carried  out,  but  the  liquid  is  cooled  at  the  expense  of  the 
refrigeration  of  the  system.  No  work  is  attempted,  as  the 
amount  obtainable  would  not  be  in  proportion  to  the 
expense  involved  in  procuring  the  same. 

The  value  of  a  circulating  medium,  it  will  be  seen,  is 
dependent  upon  its  latent  heat  of  vaporisation  per  pound, 
inasmuch  as  this  quality  governs  its  refrigerating  effect. 
Regarding  the  choice  of  the  circulating  medium  or  agent, 
therefore,  the  above  point  must  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion, as  well  as  the  fact  that  the  size  of  the  compressor 
depends  on  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  vapour  that  must 


REFRIGERATION  IN  GENERAL. 


II 


be  taken  in  to  produce  a  certain  amount  of  refrigeration, 
and  that  the  strength  of  its  parts  will  depend  on  the  pressure 
of  the  circulating  medium.  Also  that  the  loss  of  refrigera- 
tion, on  account  of  cooling  the  liquid  circulating  medium, 
depends  on  the  specific  heat  of  the  liquid  as  compared 
with  the  heat  of  volatilisation. 

From  the  following  table  it  will  be  seen  that  with  ammonia 
the  loss  due  to  the  cooling  of  the  liquid,  as  shown  in  percent- 
ages for  every  degree  difference  in  temperature  of  condenser 
and  refrigerator,  is  less  than  in  the  case  of  other  liquids,  and 
total  refrigerating  effect  per  pound  of  liquid  is  largest,  thus 
readily  accounting  for  the  preference  generally  given  to 
ammonia  as  the  circulating  medium  or  agent.  The  only 
advantage  possessed  by  sulphurous  acid  is  the  lower  pressure 
of  its  vapour,  and  that  of  carbonic  acid  the  smaller  size  of 
compressor  necessary ;  the  loss  due  to  heating  of  liquid  is 
very  large  in  the  latter  case. 


TABLE  OF  QUALITIES  OF  PRINCIPAL  LIQUIDS  EMPLOYED 
IN  REFRIGERATION. — (Siebel.) 


& 

c 
.2 

fc 

c 

.0 

*°  g, 

II 

I 

.0 

rt  fa 

"S 

rt  *» 

a^  c 

-o 

ressure  in  Ibs 
luare  inch,  at 

sat  of  Vapori 
per  Ib.,  at  o° 

[ume  cubic  fe 
Ib.,  at  o°  F 

Specific  Hea 
Liquid. 

sat  of  Vapori 
per  cubic  fo< 

.elative  Volui 
mpressor  for 
Refrigeratic 

ass  due  to  Co 
Liquid. 

H 

> 

w 

Wo 

^ 

Sulphurous  Acid  .  . 

10 

I7I-2 

7'35 

0-4I 

23-3 

6170 

Per  cot. 
0-24 

Carbonic  Acid     .  . 

3IO 

123-2 

0-277 

i-oo 

447- 

3'24 

0-81 

Ammonia  .  .         .  . 

30 

555-5 

Q-IO 

1-02 

61-7 

0-18 

THE  APPLICATION  OF  THE  ENTROPY,  OR  THETA-PHI, 
DIAGRAM  TO  REFRIGERATING  MACHINES. 

Entropy  is  the  co-ordinate  with  the  temperature  of 
energy,  that  is  to  say,  length  on  a  diagram,  the  area  of 
which  is  energy  in  heat-units,  and  the  height  of  which  is 


12  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 

absolute  temperature ;  the  abscissae  being  the  quotients 
found  by  the  division  of  the  heat  quantity  by  the  absolute 
temperature.  Absolute  temperature  is  denoted  by  the 
Greek  letter  theta,  and  entropy  by  the  Greek  letter  phi, 
hence  the  temperature-entropy  diagram  is  generally  called 
the  theta-phi  (0,  <£)  diagram. 

In  the  case  of  an  indicator  diagram  the  co-ordinates 
are  pressure  and  volume,  the  work  done  per  stroke  in  foot- 
pounds being  represented  by  the  area.  The  theta-phi 
diagram  represents  the  heat  units  as  converted  into  work 
per  pound  of  the  working  fluid,  the  area  representing  a 
quantity  of  heat  in  heat  units,  the  vertical  ordinates  absolute 
temperatures,  and  the  horizontal  ordinates  the  quantity 
known  as  entropy.  The  special  applicability  of  entropy 
diagrams  to  refrigeration  was  pointed  out  in  1892  by  an 
American  engineer,  Mr.  George  Richmond,  and  they  have 
also  been  used  by  Professor  Linde  for  a  considerable  time 
past. 

The  following  application  of  the  entropy  diagram  to 
refrigerators  is  abstracted  from  a  useful  little  work  (to  which 
the  reader  is  referred  for  fuller  information  on  the  subject) 
by  Henry  A.  Golding,  A.M.I.M.E.,  on  "The  Theta-phi 
Diagram,"  published  by  the  Technical  Publishing  Co., 
Ltd.,  Manchester :  "  The  cycle  of  operations  in  refrigerators 
is  exactly  the  reverse  of  that  in  the  Carnot  hot-air  engine. 
Instead  of  taking  in  heat  at  a  high  temperature  rlt  and 
transforming  part  of  it  into  work,  and  rejecting  the  re- 
mainder at  a  lower  temperature  r2,  as  in  the  heat-engine, 
the  working  substance  in  the  refrigerator  receives  its  heat 
at  the  lower  temperature  r2,  and  discharges  it  at  a  higher 
temperature  TX,  the  extra  energy  required  being  obtained 
from  external  work  done  on  the  gas.  The  theoretically 
perfect  cycle  that  is  reversible  is  shown  in  Fig.  4  with 
pressure-volume  ordinates,  and  in  Fig.  5  with  temperature- 
entropy  ordinates.  The  first  stage  of  the  cycle,  A  to  B, 
consists  of  the  adiabatic  expansion  of  a  certain  quantity 
of  air,  the  temperature  falling  from  rx  to  r2.  From  B  to 
C  the  expansion  is  continued  isothermally  at  constant 
temperature  r2,  the  air  receiving  heat  from  the  body  which 
it  is  desired  to  cool,  the  amount  of  heat  abstracted  being 
equal  to  the  area  EBCF  (Fig.  5).  Compression  commences 


REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL.  13 

at  C,  and  is  at  first  carried  on  adiabatically  at  constant 
entropy  (or  isentropically)  from  C  to  D,  the  temperature 
rising  from  r2  to  rly  and  is  finally  completed  by  isothermal 
compression  from  D  to  A,  at  constant  temperature  T15  a 
quantity  of  heat  being  rejected  to  the  water-jacket  equal 


VOLUME 

FIG.  4. — Diagram  showing  Theoreti- 
cally Perfect  Reversible  Cycle, 
with  Pressure  Volume  Ordinates. 


ENTROPY 

FIG.  5.— Diagram  showing;  Theoreti- 
cally Perfect  Reversible  Cycle, 
with  Temperature-Entropy  Ordi- 
nates. 


to  FDAE.  The  heat  expended  in  the  process  is  the 
equivalent  of  the  work  done  on  the  gas,  and  is  equal  to  the 
area  ABCD  in  both  diagrams.  The  heat  absorbed  from 
the  substance  to  be  cooled  is  equal  to  the  rectangle  EBCF 
(Fig.  5),  and  the  efficiency,  therefore  (in  its  thermodynamic 
sense),  is  equal  to  the  ratio — 

EBCF  r, 


ABCD 


—   T.2 


It  is  thus  seen  clearly  how  the  efficiency  is  increased  by 
reducing  the  difference  of  temperature  between  TJ  and  r2, 
and  as  the  ratio — 


TI  -t2 

may  sometimes  be  greater  than  unity,  it  is  better  known 
as  "  the  coefficient  of  performance  "  (see  Howard  Lectures, 
by  Professor  Ewing,  on  "  The  Mechanical  Production  of 
Cold,"  Society  of  Arts,  1897). 

The  series  of  operations  in  air  refrigerators  with  an  open 
cycle  is  somewhat  different,  and  is  shown  in  Figs.  6  and  7. 


REFRIGERATION   AND   ICE-MAKING. 


In  this  cass  the  air  is  taken  from  the  cold  room,  and  com- 
pressed adiabatically  from  A  to  B.  It  is  then  cooled  at 
constant  pressure,  the  temperature  falling  from  B  to  C 
(Fig.  7),  and  contracting  in  volume  from  B  to  C  (Fig.  6),  after 
which  it  is  passed  into  the  expansion  cylinder,  where  it 
expands  adiabatically  from  C  to  D,  and  is  discharged  to 
the  cold  room  again.  The  work  done  on  the  air  in  the 
compression  cylinder  is  equal  to  the  area  EBAF  (Fig.  6), 
or  GCBH  (Fig.  7),  and  that  done  by  the  air  in  the  expansion 
cylinder  is  equal  to  ECDF  (Fig.  6),  or  GDAH  (Fig.  7) ;  so 
that  the  net  external  work  required  is  the  difference  of  these 


VOLUME 


FIG.  6. — Diagram  showing  Operations  in 
Air  Refrigerators  with  Open  Cycle. 


ENT  ROPY 

FIG.  7. — Diagram  showing  Operations  in 
Air  Refrigerators  with  Open  Cycle. 


two  quantities,  represented  by  the  area  enclosed  by  ABCD 
in  both  diagrams.  The  efficiency  of  the  process  will  be 
represented  by  the  ratio  of  the  two  areas — 


ECDF 
ECAF 


(Fig.  6) 


but,  as  AB  and  CD  are  similar  adiabatic  curves,  this  will 
be  equal  to  the  ratio — 

EC       FD 

EB  Or  FA 

The  following  brief  extracts  from  a  paper  on  "  The 
Theory  and  Practice  of  Mechanical  Refrigeration,"  by 
Mr.  T.  R.  Murray,  Wh.Sc.,  read  before  the  Institution  of 
Engineers  and  Shipbuilders,  Scotland,  in  December,  1897, 
will  be  cf  interest : — The  entropy  diagram  (Fig.  8)  shows  an 


REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL.  1 5 

example  of  an  application  to  the  cold-air  cycle,  the  air 
being  taken  in  at  a  temperature  /i  of  18°  Fahr.,  the 
temperature  of  the  refrigeration  chamber,  and  rejected  at  a 
temperature  t.2  of  70°  Fahr.,  which  is  the  temperature  of  the 
air  after  being  cooled  by  the  cooling  water ;  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  cold  air  is  discharged  into  the  chamber 
to  be  taken  as  —  85°  Fahr.,  and  the  highest  temperature  to 
which  it  is  heated  in  compression  to  be  taken  as  250°  Fahr. 
Considering  the  machine  to  be  theoretically  perfect,  then 


FIG.  8.— Entropy  Diagram,  showing  Application  to  the  Cold-air  Cycle. 

the  diagram  ABCD  is  obtained,  in  which  D  to  C  is  the  rise 
of  temperature  of  the  air  during  compression  from  18°  Fahr. 
to  70°  Fahr. ;  CB  represents  the  removal  of  heat  in  the 
cooler  j  B  to  A  represents  the  cooling  in  expansion  cylinder ; 
and  A  to  D,  the  collection  of  heat  in  the  refrigerated 
chamber.  The  proportions  of  the  areas  ABCD  and  ADEF 
represent  the  proportion  of  work  done  to  the  refrigeration 
produced.  The  rectangle  AE  will  be  found  to  'be  9' 19 
times  the  rectangle  BD.  In  the  working  cycle,  where  the 
air  is  raised  to  250°  Fahr.  in  the  compressor,  this  will  be 
represented  on  the  diagram  by  point  H,  and  the  fall  in 


REFRIGERATION   AND   ICE-MAKING. 


temperature  during  cooling  by  HB.  The  temperature 
being  again  lowered  in  expansion  cylinder  to  —85°  Fahr.,  is 
represented  by  the  vertical  line  BG,  and  the  collection  of 
heat  in  the  chamber  by  GD.  The  diagram  of  work  is  now 
BHDG,  which  is  about  375  times  the  theoretical  amount, 
and  when  compared  with  the  refrigeration  done,  now  repre- 
sented by  area  GDEF,  gives  an  efficiency  of  only  a  little 
over  2.  Losses  by  friction,  moisture,  etc.,  reduce  this  in 
practice  to  a  little  over  f . 

Fig.   9  is   an  entropy  diagram    for   i  Ib.  of  saturated 


r>»>u  - 

1500 
460- 

»tOO 

300 
150 

ftoo 

:Jo  2 

^r 

77/7 

V7Y7 

777; 

^77x 

\" 

A 
n 

:$*/- 

$ 

m 

m 

m 

m 

K 

/A 

^JG 

3 

/^v 

1 

i 

DC 

z 

| 

1 

Ifc 

I 

s 

1 

3 

]b'0 
300 

V) 

Q- 

1 

3 

2 

1 

5 

oJ 

| 

0 

F 

j 

^ 

\X\N 

s\\- 

\NX 

b 

F 

0   -I  '1 


-6  -7  •« 
E  N  T  ROPY 


560° 

5'to 
5*0 

$c 

^60 

Tioo°       B 

:S  ^ 

:r 

^ 

IfM 

»fiO 

-2.0 

-HW 

r 

^^ 

35o 

i 

1  \ 

3oo- 

or 

X 

! 

^ 

9  So 

< 
u_ 

| 

^ 

U.0(y 

i 
i 

| 

llCQ. 

If) 
Q. 

k 
i 

y 

ON( 

y 

CL 

0 

21 
h 
Z 
!  w 

100- 

2 

r 
r 

$J 

a 

*>o- 

u 

( 

s 

^ 

o 

F 

] 

J 

O-l  -1  -3-* 

FIG.  9.—  Entropy  Diagram  for  i  Ib.  of 
Saturated  Ammonia  Vapour  from 
—40°  to  +100°  Fahr. 


FIG.  10. — Entropy  Diagram  for  i  Ib.  of 
Saturated  Carbonic  Acid  Vapour 
from  —40°  to  +100°  Fahr. 


ammonia  vapour,  from  the  temperature  of  —40°  Fahr. 
to  +ioo0  Fahr.  FE  is  the  basis  line,  the  temperature  at 
this  point  being  absolute  zero,  -  460°  Fahr.;  A,  the  absolute 
temperature  at  -40°  Fahr.  =  420°  Fahr.  =  T2.;  B,  the 
absolute  temperature  at,  +100°  Fahr.  =  560°  Fahr.  =  T2; 
AD  =  the  entropy  at  Tl ;  and  considering  that  a  unit 
weight  of  ammonia,  say  i  Ib.  is  being  dealt  with,  the  length 

AD  can  be  determined  by  taking ;=  =    °3  45  =  1*436.     In 

J.          420 


REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL.  I/ 

the  same  way,  BC  =  =?  _  0-922.     The  point  G  has  still  to 

la 

be  determined  in  order  to  find  the  position  of  point  B. 
Considering,  however,  that  DC  represents  the  compression 
in  compressor,  CB  the  giving  out  of  heat  to  the  condenser, 
BA  the  expansion  through  the  orifice  of  expansion  valve, 
and  AD  the  taking  in  of  heat  in  the  refrigerator,  it  will  be 
understood  that  AG  really  represents  the  entropy  of  the 
liquid  heat  carried  into  the  refrigerator  ;  and  its  length  may 

T 
be  found  by  the  expression  AG  =  clog,,  -?,  where  c  =  mean 

AI 

specific   heat   of  liquid   between  Tj  and  T2.     A   simpler 

formula  is  AG  =  ,7:  —  rr?r  ,  where  h  =  liquid  heat  T2  —  liquid 


heat  Tj. 

By  calculating  these  values  for  various  temperatures 
between  T1  and  T2,  the  points  through  which  to  draw  the 
line  BA  are  found.  For  ammonia  it  will  be  found  to  be 
practically  a  straight  line,  so  that  it  is  quite  near  enough  to 
find  the  point  B  only  and  draw  a  straight  line  between  A 
and  B.  By  plotting  as  abscissae  the  values  of  the  entropy 
of  the  latent  heat  at  same  temperatures,  the  curve  CD  will 
be  formed. 

Fig.  10  is  an  entropy  diagram  for  i  Ib.  of  saturated  carbonic 
acid  vapour  from  the  temperature  of  —40°  Fahr.  to  +100° 
Fahr.,  the  same  construction  also  applying  in  this  case, 
but  the  formation  being  a  continuous  curve  with  a  rounded 
top.  To  find  the  efficiency,  by  means  of  these  diagrams, 
of  a  machine  working  with  the  same  temperatures  Ta  and 
T2  as  taken  with  the  cold-air  cycle,  and  considering,  in  the 
first  place,  the  cycle  as  being  the  Carnot  or  perfect  one, 
compression  and  expansion  will  both  be  adiabatic,  therefore 
they  will  be  represented  by  vertical  lines,  and  the  giving  up 
of  heat  to  the  condenser,  as  well  as  the  collection  of  same 
in  the  refrigerator,  being  isothermal,  then  will  be  shown  as 
horizontal  lines.  Draw  horizontals  ad  and  be,  and  verticals 
^^/and  che.  Then  the  area  bh  will  represent  the  work  of 
the  compressor,  and  the  area  ge  the  refrigeration  done. 

C 


i8 


REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


These  equal  respectively  b  e  x  T2  -  Tx,  and  be  X  Tx.    The 


efficiency  will  therefore  = 


_T) 


=  9'*9  as  before. 


In   considering  how   nearly  the  actual    working  cycle 
approaches  the  above  in  practice,  it  must  first  be  remembered 


REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL.  Ip 

that  the  cooling  agent  simply  circulates  in  pipes  through 
the  chambers  being  cooled,  and  must  of  necessity  be  colder 
in  order  to  secure  a  transference  of  heat.  The  difference  in 
temperature  depends  on  the  cooling  surface,  or  length  of 


piping,  as  compared  with  the  cubic  capacity  of  the  chamber, 
and  may  be  in  practice  from  10°  to  25°  Fahr.  Suppose  that 
allowance  be  made  for  a  difference  of  18°  Fahr.,  then  the 
lower  temperature  T!  will  correspond  to  o°  Fahr.  Again,  the 
working  cycle  falls  away  from  the  Carnot  cycle  in  not  being 


2O  REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 

reversible,  owing  to  expansion  taking  place  through  a  small 
orifice  instead  of  by  means  of  an  expansion  cylinder.  Thus 
the  liquid  carries  a  certain  amount  of  heat  into  the  re- 
frigerator, which  goes  to  heat  up  the  expanded  gas,  render 
ing  part  of  it  unavailable  for  refrigeration.  The  amount  of 
this  liquid  heat  varies  for  each  agent,  and  the  entropy 
diagrams,  Figs,  n  and  12,  to  a  larger  scale,  show  the  working 
cycle  in  each  case.  In  these,  the  areas  agb  represent  the 
additional  work  that  the  use  of  an  expansion  cycle  would 
have  obviated  The  heat  which  ought  to  have  been  spent 
in  producing  this  work  is  carried  by  the  liquid  into  the 
refrigerator,  and  this  therefore  falls  to  be  deducted  from  the 
refrigeration  done,  so  that  the  latter  is  now  represented  by 
the  area  g±  h  eflt  being  less  than  before  by  the  rectangle  gfly 
which  is  equal  to  area  agb. 

COMPARATIVE  EFFICIENCY  OF  REFRIGERATING  MACHINES. 

Professor  Ewing  estimates  the  efficiency  of  the  absorp- 
tion machine  at  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  times  that  of 
the  cold-air  machine,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  vapour- 
compression  machine  at  from  five  to  six  times  that  of  the 
cold-air  machine,  and  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  times 
that  of  the  absorption  machine. 

In  comparing  one  system  with  another,  the  theoretical 
values  obtained  at  the  machines  are  not  sufficient,  as  the 
combined  losses  in  piping,  brine  cooling,  circulating  pumps, 
fans,  and  any  other  auxiliary  apparatus,  must  be  con- 
sidered, and  only  the  actual  net  useful  duty  performed 
taken  into  account.  And  further,  an  amount  must  be 
added  to  the  capital  interest  in  a  plant  for  recharging  with 
gas  (except  air  machines),  including  incidentals  such  as 
calcium  chloride  and  other  items  necessary  to  the  system. 

Refrigerating  machines,  to  be  efficient,  must  be  efficient 
when  working  in  hot  weather  or  tropical  climates.  Some 
systems  fall  off  considerably  when  the  cooling  water  is 
about  60°  Fahr.,  and  the  atmosphere  above  70°  Fahr.,  and 
in  some  the  cost  of  working  is  so  high  under  tropical  con- 
ditions as  to  render  their  use  almost  prohibitive.  The  cold- 
air  system  does  not  fall  off  in  the  same  ratio,  and  for  many 
purposes  is  the  most  economical.  All  the  losses  under 
this  system  are  in  the  machine,  as  the  air  after  leaving  the 


REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL. 


21 


machine  does  not  pass  through  any  secondary  process,  but 
is  conducted  direct  to  the  storage  or  cooling  chamber 
without  the  use  of  brine,  circulation  pumps,  fans,  etc. 

RATIO  OF  PRESSURE  OF  SO2,  NH3,  and  CO.2. 

(From  Landolt  &*  Bornsteiii's  Physico-Chemical  Tables,  Lister  &  Co., 
Ltd.,  Catalogue.} 


Temperature  in 
Degrees  Fahr. 

Pressure  expressed  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Sulphurous  Acid. 
S02. 

Ammonia. 
NH3. 

Carbonic  Acid. 
C02. 

-4 



12 

276 

+  5 

— 

18 

325 

H 

0 

27 

374 

23 

4 

35 

435 

32 

8 

46 

502 

4i 

ii 

59 

566 

50 

18 

73 

660 

59 

25 

90 

750 

68 

32 

108 

840 

77 

41 

129 

95° 

86 

51 

J52 

i,  060 

95 

62 

1  80 

1,280 

104 

75 

208 

1,320 

\\ 


FIG.  13. — Diagram  showing  Loss 
of  Efficiency  with  NHa  and 
C02  owing  to  use  of  Expan- 
sion Valve. — (Murray,  hist. 
Engrs.  and  Shipbuilders, 
Scotland,  1897.) 


."0-. 

8 
«" 

a 

. 

\ 

> 

fe 

\ 

\ 

^ 

S    \ 

8«». 

\ 

\ 

S" 

\\ 

\ 

FIG.  14.— Diagram  showing  Per- 
centage of  Efficiency  of  Work- 
ing Cycle  of  CO2  as  compared 
with  NHs. — (Murray,  Inst. 
Engrs.  and  Shipbuilders, 
Scotland,  :897.) 


22 


REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


RESULTS  OF  TEST  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  COLD-AIR 

MACHINES. 


Haslam.* 

Bell- 
Coleman.+ 

ColeV'Arctic"* 

No.  4 
Size. 

No.  i 
Size. 

Diameter  of  comp.  cy.  in  ins. 

25^2  cy.) 

28 

II 

63 

Diameter  of  exp.  cy.  in  ins  

I9|   » 

21 

9 

5? 

Stroke  of  each 

36 

24 

12 

8 

Revs,  per  minute 

72 

63-2 

96 

1  60 

Air  pres.  in  receiver  (abs.)  in  Ibs. 

per  sq.  in.  .  . 

64 

61 

65 

75 

Temp,   of   air  entering    comp.   cy. 

(cont.  vapour  up  to  88  per  cent. 

of  sat.)  in  deg.  Fahr  

— 

65-5 

48 

46 

Temp,   of    comp.   air    admitted  to 

exp.  cy.,  Fahr. 

— 

— 

35 

— 

Temp,  of  air  after  expansion,  Fahr. 

-85 

-52 

-81 

-98 

Init.  temp,  of  cooling  water,  Fahr. 

62 

41 

I.  H.P.  in  comp.  cy.  .  . 

346-4 

124-5 

14-5 

3-28 

I.  H.P.  in  exp.  cy  

176-2 

SB'S 

7-8 

1-68 

Per  cent,  of  I.  H.P.  of  comp.  retained 

in  expander 

Si 

47 

54 

5i 

EFFECTIVE  COOLING  POWER  OBTAINABLE  FROM  THE  EX- 
PENDITURE OF   ONE  POUND   OF   STEAM  IN   THEORETI- 
j  •      CALLY  PERFECT  MACHINES.— (Tuxen  &  HammericW  s  Cat.} 


Ammonia  by  the  absorption 
system.   Thermal  Units   294 

Carbonic  Anhydride          ...   652 

Ammonia  by  the  compres- 
sion system      978 

equal  to  24  Ibs.  of  ice  per  Ib. 
of  coal  consumed, 
equal  to  26  Ibs.  of  ice  per  Ib. 
of  coal  consumed. 

equal  to  40  Ibs.  of  ice  per  Ib. 
of  coal  consumed. 

*  "  Proceedings,  Manchester  Society  of  Engineers,"  1894. 
t  Prof.   Schroeter,    "  Untersuchungen   an   Kaeltemaschieren 
schiedener  Systeme,"  1881. 

J  A.  J.  Wallis-Tayler,  A.M.I.C.E.,  1902. 


Ver. 


REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL. 


TESTS  OF  AMMONIA  AND  CARBONIC  ACID  MACHINES. 

(Schroder,  Experimental  Refrigerating  Station^  Munich,  Germany.} 


NO.  OF  TEST  — 

AMMONIA   MACHINE. 

CARBONIC  ACID 
MACHINE.* 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

,  7 

8 

Temperature  in 
brine  tank,  de- 

' 

grees    Celsius 

-6-1 

-6-4 

-6-4 

-4-8 

-4-0 

-4-8 

-4-8 

-6-7 

Temperature  in 

condenser,  de- 

grees   Celsius 

21-4 

21-4 

21-4 

34'9 

20-9 

21'2 

22-2 

30 

Temperature 

before  expan- 

sion valve,  de- 

grees   Celsius 

-6-7 

n-6 

18-4 

28-3 

-7'9 

IO'O 

16-8 

28-8 

Refrigeration 

per  hour,  per 

horse  power  of 

steam  -  engine 
in  calories    ... 

3897 

3636 

3508 

2237 

3832 

3178 

2867 

1477 

BOVE  ATMOSPHERE 


CONDENSER    TEMPS. 


\, 

fe 

UJ 

4 

UJ 

JIFFEI 

ENCE 

^f^* 

0"F 

^-  —  1 

.—  — 

a 
a 

^, 

^^ 

•a-         66-          70'         BO'          POT         l<v 

TMOSPHERE 


^ 

, 

? 

Cl 

PACIT' 

•  AT  19 

83  PR 

SSURE 

/ 

, 

? 

x 

-" 

x"^ 

TEMP 

RATU 

ES  OF 

EX  PA 

5ION 

FIG.  15. — Diagram  showing  Loss  of 
Efficiency  with  Brine  Circula- 
tion compared  with  Direct  Ex- 
pansion of  NHs. — (^Murray, 
Inst.  Engrs.  and  Shipbuilders, 
Scotland,  1897.) 


FIG.  16.— Diagram  showing  Relative 
Compressor  Capacity  with  NHs  at 
various  Expansion  Pressures  and 
Temperatures.  —  (Murray,  Inst. 
Engrs,  and  Shipbuilders.  Scotland, 
1897.) 


*  Dr.  Mollier  has  since  proved  these  results  to  be  incorrect.     See 
"Zeitschrift  fur  Die  Gesammte  Kalte  Industrie." 


24  REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  VERY  Low  TEMPERATURES. 

The  idea  of  self-intensive  refrigeration,  or  the  regenera- 
tive process,  seems  to  have  occurred  to  Siemens,  Coleman, 
Solway,  and  others  many  years  ago,  the  first-named  having 
applied  for  a  patent  in  Germany  for  such  a  process  as 
long  ago  as  1857 ;  and  in  1885  the  latter  patented  a  similar 
device  and  made  an  apparatus  by  means  of  which,  how- 
ever, he  was  only  able  to  obtain  a  temperature  as  low  as 
—  140°  Fahr.,  and  was  not  successful  in  liquefying  air. 
The  first  perfect  self-intensive  refrigerating  methods  are 
due  to  Professor  Linde  and  Dr.  William  Hampson. 

The  methods  primarily  employed  for  the  production  of 
intense  cold  were  arranged  to  operate  upon  what  is  known 
as  the  cascade  system ;  that  is  to  say,  carbonic  acid,  methyl 
chloride,  nitrous  oxide,  or  any  other  gas  capable  of  being 
easily  liquefied,  is  first  compressed  by  a  pump,  then  cooled 
by  water,  and  finally  allowed  to  pass  through  a  contracted 
orifice  or  expansion  valve,  at  lower  pressure  and  reduced  to 
a  temperature  of,  say  for  instance  — 110°  Fahr.,  and  back 
again  to  the  compression  pump, — in  fact,  a  precisely  similar 
cycle  to  that  of  the  ammonia  compression  machine.  The 
low  temperature  liquid  and  vapour  thus  produced  then 
performs  a  second  cycle,  taking  the  place  which  water  takes 
in  the  first,  and  is  used  to  effect  the  cooling  and  condensa- 
tion of  a  gas  of  a  more  volatile  nature,  such  as  ethylene, 
which  latter,  on  passing  the  orifice  or  expansion  valve, 
liquefies  and  vaporises  at  a  still  lower  temperature,  of,  say, 
about  —155°  Fahr.,  the  exact  degree  varying  according 
to  the  pressure  maintained  on  the  suction  side  of  the 
compressor  pump.  By  the  ethylene,  compressed  air  or 
oxygen  is  cooled  in  a  like  manner,  and  the  pressure  of  the 
liquid  air  or  oxygen  being  reduced  by  passing  through  an 
expansion  valve,  becomes  partly  vaporised  by  its  own  heat, 
that  portion  remaining  a  liquid  under  atmospheric  pressure 
being  reduced  to  the  boiling  point  of  air. 

In  the  self-intensive,  or  regenerative,  method  of  producing 
very  low  temperatures,  only  one  circuit  of  gas  is  required, 
viz.  that  of  the  air  to  be  liquefied.  This  air,  starting  at 
an  ordinary  temperature,  with  the  assistance  of  only  water 
as  a  refrigerant,  lowers  by  degrees  its  own  temperature  of 
expansion,  by  returning  over  the  coils  of  compressed  gas 


REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL, 


in  the  above-mentioned  manner,  until  it  reaches  the  boiling 
point  of  air,  the  liquid  then  commencing  to  collect  at  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  improved  apparatus  of  Dr.  Hampson  is  founded 
on  the  well-known  fact  that  any  gas,  when  expanding 
through  a  small  aperture,  will  perform  such  work  upon 
itself  as  to  effect  a  reduction  of  temperature,  and  this 
effect  with  air,  although  not  large,  is  still  appreciable. 
The  whole  of  the  gas  expanded  is  used  to  lower,  to  a  small 
extent,  the  temperature  of  the  gas  passing  to  the  expansion 
aperture.  This  results  in  the  gas  expanded  being  somewhat 
lower  in  temperature  than  that  previously  expanded,  and  con- 
sequently the  succeeding  gas  is  cooled  to  a  further  reduced 
temperature,  proceeding  thus  until  the  gas  attains  such  a  tem- 
perature that  it  commences  to  liquefy,  or  until  such  time  as 
the  removal  of  the  heat  within  the  apparatus  becomes  counter- 
balanced by  the  access  of  heat  from  the  exterior  thereof. 

The  apparatus  employed  is  mainly  composed  of  a  series 
of  long,  well-insulated,  fine  copper  coils,  through  which  the 
gas  passes  to  the  expansion  valve,  the  arrangement  being 
such  that  the  expanded  gas  has  to  flow  over  the  entire 
external  surface  of  the  coils  before  being  removed,  so  as  to 
abstract  as  much  heat  as  practicable  from  the  entering  gas. 


FIG.  17.— Diagram  showing  Hamp- 
spn's  Apparatus  for  the  Produc- 
tion of  very  Low  Temperatures. 


FIG.  18. — Diagram  showing  Linde's 
Apparatus  for  the  Production  of 
very  Low  Temperatures. 


CAPACITY  OF  REFRIGERATING  MACHINES. 
Refrigerating  machines  are  rated  in  two  ways,  viz.  ice- 
making  capacity,  or  tons  of  ice  they  will  produce  in  one 


26  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 

day  of  twenty-four  hours  ;  and  refrigerating  capacity,  or 
cooling  work  done  by  one  ton  of  ice  melting  per  day  of 
twenty-four  hours.  Roughly,  the  first  or  ice-making 
capacity  of  a  machine  may  be  taken  to  be  about  one-half 
of  the  refrigerating  capacity.  This,  however,  is  only  an 
approximation,  as  the  tons  of  ice  a  refrigerating  machine 
is  capable  of  making  depends  upon  the  initial  temperature 
of  the  water  to  be  frozen.  The  unit  of  capacity  is  one  ton 
of  ice  made  from  water  at  32°  Fahr.  into  ice  at  32°  Fahr. 
per  day,  which,  according  to  practice  here,  is  equal  to  3 18,080 
Ibs.  of  water  cooled  one  degree,  or  to  318,080  heat  units  or 
thermal  units ;  and,  according  to  American  practice,  is  equal 
to  284,000  Ibs.  of  water  cooled  one  degree,  or  284,000  heat 
units  or  thermal  units;  and  this  is  the  tonnage  basis  for 
refrigerating  capacity  as  well  as  for  ice-making  capacity 
when  ice  is  made  from  water  at  32°  Fahr.  The  differ- 
ence between  English  and  American  practice  is  due  to 
2240  Ibs.  being  taken  to  the  ton  in  the  former,  and  2000 
Ibs.  in  the  latter  case. 

The  real  ice-making  capacity  of  a  machine  is  dependent 
upon  the  temperature  of  the  water  to  be  frozen,  and  is 
calculated  as  follows :  i  Ib.  of  ice  in  melting  into  water 
at  32°  Fahr.  will  take  up  142  positive  units  of  heat,  it 
follows,  therefore,  that  water  at  32°  Fahr.  will  require  142 
negative  units  of  heat  to  make  it  into  ice.  Say  that  if  the 
water  to  be  frozen,  for  instance,  be  at  a  temperature  of  72° 
Fahr.,  it  must  first  be  cooled  down  to  32°  Fahr.  before 
freezing  commences  j  therefore  72°— 32°  =  40°  +  142  = 
182  heat  units  per  pound  ofj  water  frozen.  Ice  made 
artificially  is  usually  much  below  32°  Fahr.,  as  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  bath  in  which  it  is  made  ranges  about  20° 
below  freezing  point,  and  consequently  this  work  has  also 
to  be  added.  Taking  into  account  the  specific  heat  of  ice, 
this  additional  negative  heat  approximately  equals  10  units, 

which  added  to  182  =  192;  therefore  *42  X  I00  =  73'963, 

192 

or  nearly  74  per  cent,  tons  of  ice  made  per  ton  refrigerating 
capacity.  For  greater  accuracy,  allowances  must  also  be 
made  for  losses  by  ice  tank  and  can  exposure,  wastage, 
thawing  out  of  moulds,  etc.,  etc. 


REFRIGERATION  IN   GENERAL. 


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28 


REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


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REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL. 


29 


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REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


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REFRIGERATION   IN  GENERAL. 


II 


a     2 


r^    C 


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s 


REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


REFRIGERATION  IN   GENERAL.  33 

APPROXIMATE  ALLOWANCES  PER  TON  CAPACITY  TO  BE 
MADE  WHEN  SELECTING  A  MACHINE  FOR  REFRIGER- 
ATING PURPOSES. — (Triumph  Ice  Machine  Company.) 

Beer  wort:  15  barrels  per  ton  on  Baudelot  cooler. 
One  thousand  gallons  of  sweet  water  per  ton  from  70°  to 
40°.  Six  beeves,  600  to  700  Ibs.  each,  per  ton.  Ten  to 
twenty  hogs,  per  ton.  One  thousand  cubic  feet  of  space 
per  ton  for  small  machines  up  to  2  tons.  Four  thousand 
cubic  feet  of  space  per  ton  for  machine  from  10  to  15  tons. 
Ten  thousand  cubic  feet  of  space  per  ton  for  larger 
machines  used  for  general  purposes. 

The  above  will  serve  as  a  guide,  but  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  climate,  construction,  and  exposure  of 
buildings  that  are  to  be  refrigerated,  character  of  the 
insulation,  management  and  method  of  handling  work, 
all  have  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  (See  also  Section 
on  Cold  Storage.) 

CONDENSERS. 

On  the  efficiency  of  the  condenser  largely  depends  the 
economical  working  of  the  machine.  Condensers  are  of 
two  kinds  or  classes,  viz.  the  submerged  and  the  open  air,  or 
atmospheric,  the  latter  being  the  more  economical  in  the 
matter  of  cooling  water,  but  occupying  the  larger  amount 
of  space. 

According  to  Professor  Siebel,  under  average  conditions 
(incoming  condenser  water  70°,  and  outgoing  condenser  water 
80°,  more  or  less),  for  each  ton  of  refrigerating  capacity  (or 
for  one  half-ton  of  ice-making  capacity)  40  square  feet  of 
condenser  surface,  corresponding  to  64  running  feet  of  2-inch 
pipe,  and  to  90  running  feet  of  i^-inch  pipe,  will  be  re- 
quired in  a  submerged  condenser.  The  amount  of  cooling 
water  used  varies  from  3  to  7  gallons  per  minute  per  ton 
ice-making  capacity  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  pipe 
required  in  an  open  air  condenser  is  40  square  feet  per  ton 
of  refrigerating  capacity  (or  for  one  half-ton  of  ice-making 
capacity),  equivalent  to  64  running  feet  of  2 -inch  pipe,  or 
90  running  feet  of  i—inch  pipe.  The  amount  of  cooling 
water  used  is  about  50  per  cent,  less  than  with  condensers 
of  the  submerged  type. 

u 


34 


REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


Double  pipe  condensers  are  made  which  are  claimed  to 
possess  the  best  qualities  of  both  submerged  and  open  air 
condensers.  This  condenser  consists  of  a  coil  made  up 
with  one  pipe  inside  another  of  larger  diameter,  the  cooling 
water  circulating  through  the  internal  pipe,  and  the  com- 
pressed gas  in  the  annular  space  or  clearance  between  the 
two  pipes.  The  gas  is  thus  exposed  to  the  action  of  both 
cooling  water  and  the  atmosphere. 


EVAPORATION  OF  LIQUIDS.— (Lightfoot.) 


Liquid  or  gas. 

Water. 

Anhydrous 
Ammonia. 

Sul- 
phuric 
ether. 

Mythylic 
ether. 

Sulphur 
diox- 
ide. 

Pictet's 
liquid. 

Specific   gravity  of\ 
vapour,  compared  > 

0-622 

o'S9 

2-24 

1-61 

2-24 

with  air  =1-000.     ) 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Boiling  point  at  \ 

atmospheric  pres-  [ 

212° 

-37'3° 

96° 

—  10-5 

14° 

-2-2° 

sure    .         .        .  ) 

Latent  heat  ofvapor-  j 

isation  at  atmos-  J 

966 

900 

165 

473 

182 

— 

pheric  pressure    .  ) 

Fahr. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

in    A 

-   40° 



__ 





— 

— 

£§ 

—    20° 

— 

19-4 

— 

12-0 

5'7 

11-6 

g 

0° 

— 

30-0 

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18-7 

9-8 

I5'4 

c  e 

+    20° 

— 

477 

2-6 

28-1 

16-9 

22-O 

•2  JjJ 

+    32° 

0-089 

61-5 

3-6 

36-0 

22-7 

27-0 

s£ 

+    40° 

0-122 

73'0 

4'5 

42'S 

27-3 

3^3 

_OJ  T3 

w 

+    60° 
+    80° 

0-254 
0-503 

108-0 
i52-4 

7-2 
10-9 

61-0 
86-1 

41-4 
60-2 

44-0 
60'0 

N 

100° 

0-942 

210-6 

16-2 

118-0 

84-5 

79-1 

>* 

120° 

1-685 

283-7 

23-5 

— 

"7'5 

99-7 

£  2   • 

140° 

2-879 

— 

33'5 

— 

— 

— 

||s 

1  60° 

4*731 

— 

45'6 

— 

— 

— 

t/J    Q<  rj 

180° 

7'S11 

— 

62-0 

— 

— 

— 

,Q  M  4j 

4B    !•   { 

200° 

11-526 



81-8 

— 

— 

— 

fc    <D 

212° 

147 

— 

96-0 

~~ 

~~ 

~ 

REFRIGERATION  IN   GENERAL. 


35 


TABLE  SHOWING  PRESSURE  AND  BOILING  POINT  OF  SOME 
OF  THE  LIQUIDS  AVAILABLE  FOR  USE  IN  REFRIGER- 
ATING MACHINES. — (Ledoux.) 


Ill 

Tension  of  Vapour,  in  pounds  per  square  inch,  above 
Zero. 

Deg. 
Fahr. 

Sulphuric 
Ether. 

Sulphur 
Dioxide. 

Ammonia. 

Methylic 
Ether. 

Carbonic 
Acid. 

Pictet 
Fluid. 

(I) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(6) 

(7) 

—40 

— 

— 

IO-22 

— 

— 

—31 

— 

— 

I3-23 

— 

— 

— 

—  22 

— 

5-56 

16-95 

11-15 

— 

— 

-13 

— 

7-23 

21-51 

I3-85 

251-6 



—  4 

1-30 

9*27 

27-04 

17-06 

292-9 

J3"5 

5 

I-7O 

11-76 

33-67 

20-84 

340-1 

16-2 

2-19 

I4-75 

4I-58 

25*27 

393-4 

19-3 

23 

2-79 

18-31 

50-91 

30-41 

453*4 

22-9 

32 

3-55 

22-53 

61-85 

36-34 

520-4 

26-9 

4'45 

27-48 

74-55 

43-13 

594-8 

31-2 

50 

5-54 

33-26 

89-21 

50-84 

676-9 

36-2 

59 

6-84 

39-93 

105-99 

59*56 

766-9 

41-7 

68 

8-38 

47-62 

125-08 

69"35 

864-9 

48-1 

77 

10-19 

56-39 

146-64 

80-28 

97I-I 

55'6 

86 

12-31 

66-37 

170-83 

92-4I 

1085-6 

64-I 

95 

14-76 

77-64 

197-83 

— 

1207-9 

73-2 

104 

T7-59 

90-32 

227-76 

— 

I338-2 

82-9 

TABLE  OF  SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES  AND  PERCENTAGE  OF 
AMMONIA. — ( Carius.) 


Degrees 
Beaumd. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Percentage. 

Degrees 
Beaume. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Percentage. 

IO 

I-OOO 

O 

21 

09271 

19-4 

II 

0-9929 

1-8 

22 

0-921 

21-4 

12 

0-9859 

3'3 

23 

0-915 

23-4 

13 

0-979 

5'° 

24 

0-909 

25-3 

H 

0-9722 

6*7 

25 

0-9032 

27-7 

0-9655 

8-4 

26* 

0-8974 

30-1- 

16 

0-9589 

100 

27 

0-8917 

32-5 

17 

0-9523 

11-9 

28 

0-886 

35'2 

18 

0-9459 

13-7 

29 

0-8805 

19 

0-9395 

I5-5 

30 

0-875 

.. 

20 

0-9333 

17-4 

•• 

•• 

•  • 

*  Known  by  the  trade  as  29^-  per  cent. 
NOTE. — The  specific  gravity  of  pure  anhydrous  ammonia  is  -623. 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


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REFRIGERATION  IN  GENERAL. 


37 


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V  invb  vb  t^oo  60  'o\  o\  b  M  N  "ro  invb 

CJNWWNMNNINCO         COCOCOCOCO 


•jnioj  S 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


SOLUBILITY  OF  AMMONIA  IN  WATER  AT  DIFFERENT 
TEMPERATURES. — (Sims.) 


Degrees 
Fahr. 

Sb.ofNH3 
to  i  Ib. 
of  Water. 

Volume  of  NHS 
in  i  Volume 
of  Water. 

Degrees 
Fahr. 

Sb.ofNH3 
to  i  Ib.  of 
Water. 

Volume  of  NH3 
in  i  Volume 
of  Water. 

32-0 

0-899 

1,180 

125-6 

0-274 

359 

35-6 

0-853 

1,120 

129-2 

0-265 

348 

39'2 

0-809 

I,O62 

132-8 

0-256 

336 

42-8 

0-765 

1,005 

136-4 

0-247 

324 

46-4 

0-724 

951 

140-0 

0-238 

3I2 

50-0 

0-684 

898 

143-6 

0-229 

301 

53-6 

0-646 

848 

I47-2 

0-220 

389 

57-2 

0-611 

802 

I50-8 

0-2II 

277 

60-8 

0-578 

759 

I54-4 

0-202 

265 

64-4 

0-546 

717 

158-0 

0-194 

254 

68-0 

0-518 

683 

161-6 

0-186 

244 

71-6 

0-490 

643 

165-2 

0-178 

234 

75'2 

0-467 

613 

168-8 

0-170 

223 

78-8 

0-446 

585 

172-4 

0-162 

212 

82-4 

0-426 

559 

176-0 

0-154 

2O2 

86-0 

0-408 

536 

179-6 

0-146 

192 

89-2 

0-393 

Si6 

183-2 

0-138 

181 

93'2 

0-378 

496 

186-8 

0-130 

170 

96-8 

0-363 

478 

190-4 

0-122 

160 

100-4 

0-350 

459 

194-0 

O-II4 

149 

104-0 

0-338 

444 

197-6 

OT06 

*39 

107-6 

0-326 

428 

201-2 

0-098 

128 

111*2 

0-315 

414 

204-8 

0-090 

118 

114-8 

0-303 

399 

208-4 

0-082 

107 

118-4 

0-294 

386 

2I2'O 

0-074 

97 

I22'O 

0-284 

373 

•• 

•• 

THE  FORECOOLER. 

This  is  a  supplementary  condenser  through  which  the 
compressed  ammonia  passes  before  reaching  the  main  con- 
denser, and  cooled  by  the  overflow  water  from  the  latter. 
If  composed  of  one  coil,  it  should  be  the  same  size  as  dis- 
charge pipe  from  compressor ;  if  of  a  number  of  coils,  the 
manifold  pipe,  and  the  aggregate  area  openings  of  small 
pipes,  should  be  equal  to  that  of  the  discharge  pipe. 


REFRIGERATION  IN  GENERAL. 


39 


SOLUBILITY  OF  AMMONIA  IN  WATER  AT  DIFFERENT 
TEMPERATURES  AND  PRESSURES. — (Sims.) 

i  Ib.  of  water  (also  unit  volume)  absorbs  the  following 
quantities  of  ammonia :— 


Absolute 
Pressure 
in  Ibs. 
persq.  in. 

32°  F. 

68°  F. 

104°  F. 

212°  F. 

Ibs. 

vols. 

Ibs. 

vols. 

Ibs. 

vols. 

grms. 

vols. 

14-67 

0-899 

•180 

0-518 

0-683 

0-338 

0-443 

0-074 

0-97 

J5'44 

Q'937 

•231 

o-535 

0-703 

0-349 

0-458 

0-078 

0-102 

16-41 

0-980 

•287 

o-556 

0-730 

0-363 

0-476 

0-083 

O-IO9 

17-37 

•029 

'351 

o-574 

0-754 

0-3/8 

0-496 

0-088 

0-II5 

18-34 

•077 

•414 

o*594 

0-781 

0-391 

0-513 

0-092 

0-120 

19-30 

•126 

•478 

0-613 

0-805 

0-404 

0-531 

0-096 

O-I26 

20-27 

•177 

•546 

0-632 

0-830 

0-414 

0-543 

o-ioi 

0-I32 

21-23 

•236 

-615 

0-651 

0-855 

0-425 

0-558 

0-106 

0-139 

22-19 

•283 

•685 

0-669 

0-878 

0*434 

0-570 

o-iio 

0-I40 

23-16 

•336 

•754 

0-685 

0-894 

0*445 

0-584 

0-115 

0-I5I 

24-13 

•388 

•823 

0-704 

0-924 

0-454 

0-596 

0-120 

0-157 

25-09 

•442 

•894 

0-722 

0-948 

0-463 

0-609 

0-I25 

0-164 

26-06 

•496 

•965 

0-741 

o-973 

0-472 

0-619 

OT30 

0-I70 

27-02 

'549 

2-034 

0-761 

0-999 

0-479 

0-629 

0-135 

0-177 

27-99 

•603 

2-105 

0-780 

•023 

0-486 

0-638 

28-95 

•656 

2-175 

o-?oi 

•052 

o-493 

0-647 

.  , 

.  . 

30-88 

•758 

2-309 

0-842 

•106 

0-511 

0-671 

.  . 

32-81 

1-861 

2-444 

0-881 

•157 

0-530 

0-696 

3474 

1-966 

2-582 

0-919 

•207 

o-547 

0-718 

.  . 

36-67 

2-070 

2-718 

o-955 

•254 

0-565 

0-742 

.  . 

,  , 

38-60 

.  . 

.  . 

0-992 

•302 

o-579 

0-764 

.  . 

40'53 

•• 

•• 

o-594 

0-780 

•• 

SOLUBILITY  OF  AMMONIA  IN   WATER  AT  DIFFERENT 
TEMPERATURES.— (Roscoe.) 


Ibs.  of 

Ibs.  of 

Degrees 
Celsius. 

Degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

NH3  to 

I  Ib.  Of 

Degrees 
Celsius. 

Degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

NH3to 
i  Ib.  of 

Water, 

Water. 

0 

32-0 

0-875 

8 

46-4 

0-713 

2 

35-6 

0-833 

10 

50-0 

0-679 

4 

39-2 

0-792 

12 

53-6 

0-645 

6 

42-8 

0-751 

H 

57-2 

0-612 

REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


SOLUBILITY  OF  AMMONIA  IN  WATER  AT  DIFFERENT 
TEMPERATURES. — (Roscoe.)     ( Continued.) 


Ibs.of 

Ibs.  of 

Degrees 
Celsius. 

Degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

NH3to 
i  Ib.  of 

Degrees 
Celsius. 

Degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

NH3to 
i  Ib.  of 

Water. 

Water. 

16 

60-8 

0-582 

36 

96-8 

0*343 

18 

Jf4 

0'S54 

38 

IOO-4 

0-324 

20 

68-0 

0-526 

40 

104-0 

0-307 

22 

71-6 

0-499 

42 

107-6 

0-290 

24 

75-2 

0-474 

44 

III-2 

0-275 

26 

78-8 

0-449 

46 

114-8 

0-259 

28 

82-4 

0-426 

48 

Il8'4 

0-244 

30 

86-0 

0-403 

50 

122-0 

0-229 

32 

89-6 

0-382 

52 

125-6 

0-214 

34 

93'2 

0-362 

54 

I29-2 

0-200 

56 

I32-8 

0-186 

STRENGTH  OF  LIQUOR  AMMONIA. 


Percentage  of 
Ammonia  by 
Weight. 

Specific  Gravity. 

Degrees  Beaume, 
Water,  10. 

O 

I  -000 

IO'O 

2 

0-986 

12-0 

4 

0-979 

I3-0 

6 

0-972 

I4-0 

8 

0-966 

I5-0 

10 

0-960 

16-0 

12 

o'953 

17-1 

H 

o'945 

18-3 

16 

0-938 

I9-5 

18 

0-931 

20-7 

20 

0-925 

21-7 

22 

0-919 

22-8 

24 

0-913 

23-9 

26 

0-907 

24-8 

28 
30 

0-902 
0-897 

257 
26-6 

32 

0-892 

27'5 

34 

0-888 

28-4 

36 

0-884 

29-3 

38 

0-880 

30-2 

REFRIGERATION  IN  GENERAL. 


YIELD,  ETC.,  OF  ANHYDROUS  AMMONIA  FROM  AMMONIA 
SOLUTIONS.  — (Redwood.) 


SOLUTION. 

ANHYDROUS    AMMONIA. 

Weight  of  Ice. 

ill 

"c 

™  <u 

o 

c   . 

fe 

fc 

|| 

tn'rt 

1 

bo 
.9 

^/n'o  j 

III1 

b03 

f| 

*°.  0 

o  a 

§   3        • 

1 

§"".2? 
53 

II 

£O 

cq 

°  &  & 

.g  X3 

£ 

PH 

& 

jl| 

^ 

34'7 

7-09 

26° 

494 

3-077 

59'5 

43  '4 

32-8 

7-I7 

38° 

45<> 

2-841 

54-9 

39-6 

31-0 

7'25 

50° 

419 

2'6lO 

5°'7 

36-0 

29-0 

7'34 

62° 

382 

2-379 

46-0 

32-5 

27-2 
26-O 

7-42 
7H8 

74° 
83° 

346 
320 

2-156 
1-993 

41-7 
38-5 

29-1 
26-6 

25-6 

7-50 

86° 

3" 

1-937 

37*5 

25-8 

23-7 

7'59 

98° 

277 

1-726 

33'4 

22-8 

22-2 

7-67 

110° 

244 

1-520 

29-4 

197 

TEMPERATURES  TO  WHICH  AMMONIA  GAS  is  RAISED 
BY  COMPRESSION. 


Absolute 

ABSOLUTE    SUCTION    PRESSURE. 

Temperature 
of  Suction. 

Con- 
densing 

Pressure. 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

0°  Fahr. 

90 

199 

165 

138 

116 

98 

83 

100 

216 

181 

153 

131 

"3 

97 

1  10 

232 

196 

166 

145 

126 

109 

I2O 

245 

211 

181 

158 

138 

121 

130 

26l 

222 

193 

169 

150 

I32 

140 

273 

235 

205 

181 

161 

143 

IIS 

285 
296 

246 
257 

216 
226 

191 

202 

171 

181 

163 

REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


TEMPERATURES  TO  WHICH  AMMONIA  GAS  is  RAISED  BY 
COMPRESSION. — (Continued.) 


Temperature 
of  Suction. 

Absolute 
Con- 
densing1 
Pressure 

ABSOLUTE  SUCTION  PRESSURE. 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

5°  Fahr. 

90 

266 

172 

145 

123 

104 

89 

IOO 

223 

1  86 

1  60 

138 

119 

103 

1  10 

239 

203 

174 

151 

*32 

"5 

1  20 

254 

218 

188 

163 

145 

127 

130 

268 

230 

200 

176 

156 

139 

140 

281 

242 

212 

188 

167 

150 

150 

293 

254 

223 

198 

178 

160 

1  60 

305 

234 

209 

188 

170 

10°  Fahr. 

90 

213 

178 

151 

129 

IIO 

96 

IOO 

231 

195 

167 

144 

I25 

109 

IIO 

247 

210 

181 

158 

139 

122 

120 

261 

226 

195 

171 

134 

130 

275 

237 

207 

183 

163 

145 

140 

289 

250 

219 

195 

174 

156 

ISO 

301 

262 

231 

205 

185 

I67 

1  60 

313 

273 

241 

216 

195 

I76 

15°  Fahr. 

90 

221 

185 

158 

'35 

117 

101 

IOO 

238 

202 

173 

151 

115 

IIO 

254 

217 

188 

164 

145 

128 

120 

269 

233 

202 

178 

158 

140 

130 

283 

245 

214 

191 

170 

152 

140 

297 

257 

226 

202 

181 

I5O 

309 

269 

238 

213 

192 

173 

1  60 

321 

28l 

249 

223 

202 

183 

20°  Fahr. 

90 

228 

I92 

164 

123 

1  06 

IOO 

245 

2O9 

1  80 

157 

137 

121 

IIO 

262 

224 

195 

171 

150 

134 

120 

277 

240 

209 

185 

164 

146 

I30 

291 

252 

222 

197 

176 

158 

140 

305 

265 

234 

209 

188 

169 

15° 

277 

245 

220 

198 

180 

1  60 

329 

288 

?-? 

230 

209 

190 

25°  Fahr. 

90 

235 

199 

I48 

129 

in 

IOO 

252 

216 

Iis7 

163 

144 

127 

IIO 

269 

230 

200 

I78 

155 

140 

120 

284 

247 

216 

191 

171 

153 

I30 

299 

259 

229 

204 

183 

l65 

140 

271 

24I 

216 

194 

176 

15° 

325 

284 

253 

227 

205 

187 

1  60 

338 

296 

264 

237 

216 

197 

REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL. 


43 


TEMPERATURES  TO  WHICH  AMMONIA  GAS  is  RAISED  BY 
COMPRESSION. — (Continued.) 


Temperature 
of  Suction. 

Absolute 
Con- 
densing 
Pressure. 

ABSOLUTE  SUCTION  PRESSURE. 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

30°  Fahr. 

90 

242 

206 

177 

154 

134 

u8 

100 

260 

223 

193 

170 

150 

133 

no 

277 

239 

208 

184 

164 

J47 

I2O 

292 

255 

223 

198 

177 

159 

I30 

307 

267 

236 

211 

190 

171 

I4O 

32t 

280 

248 

223 

201 

183 

ISO 

334 

292 

260 

234 

212 

'93 

1  6O 

34& 

304 

271 

245 

223 

203 

32°  Fahr. 

90 

245 

209 

179 

157 

137 

121 

IOO 

263 

225 

196 

173 

153 

135 

110 

280 

241 

211 

I87 

167 

149 

1  20 

295 

256 

226 

201 

1  80 

162 

130 

310 

270 

239 

213 

192 

174 

140 

324 

283 

251 

226 

204 

185 

£ 

337 
350 

295 
307 

263 
274 

237 
248 

215 

226 

I96 
2O6 

35°  Fahr. 

90 

249 

213 

182 

1  60 

141 

124 

IOO 

268 

229 

200 

176 

156 

139 

no 

286 

246 

215 

I9I 

170 

'53 

120 

300 

260 

230 

205 

I84 

1  66 

I30 

3i5 

274 

243 

217 

I96 

178 

140 

329 

288 

2.S5 

230 

208 

189 

ISO 

34i 

300 

268 

24I 

219 

200 

1  60 

354 

312 

279 

252 

230 

2IO 

THE  ANALYSER. 

The  analyser  is  placed  in  upper  part  of  still  or  generator 
of  absorption  machine,  and  serves  as  a  dehydrator,  also 
increasing  temperature  of  rich  liquor  from  150°  to  170°,  at 
which  it  arrives,  to  about  200°. 

The  device  consists  essentially  of  superimposed  shelves 
down  which  the  rich  ammonia  liquor  is  delivered  and  over 
which  it  trickles,  whilst  the  heated  vapour  from  generator 
passes  over  them  in  an  upward  direction.  In  this  manner 


44 


REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


the  hot  vapour  is  caused  to  come  in  contact  with  a  large 
surface  of  the  rich  ammonia  liquor,  and  becomes  both 
enriched  in  ammonia  and  deprived  of  a  large  percentage 
of  water  by  the  time  it  reaches  the  top  of  the  analyser. 


PROPERTIES  OF  SATURATED  AMMONIA  GAS. — (Yaryan.) 


Tempera- 
ture .b'ahr. 

Pressure  from 
vacuum  in 
Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

Heat  of 

vaporization. 

Volume  of 
vapour  per 
Ib.  cubic  ft. 

Volume  of 
liquid  per  Ib. 
cubic  ft. 

Gauge 
pressure 
per  sq.  in. 

-40 

I0'69 

579-67 

24-38 

0-0234 

o- 

-35 

12-31 

576-69 

21-21 

0-0236 

o- 

-3° 

14*  I3 

573-69 

18-67 

0-0237 

o- 

-25 

16-17 

570-68 

16-42 

0-0238 

1-47 

—  20 

18-45 

567-67 

L  14-48 

o  -0240 

3-75 

-15 

20-99 

564-64 

12-81 

0-0242 

6-29 

—  IO 

2377 

561-61 

11-36 

o  -0243 

9-07 

-  5 

27-57 

558-56 

9-89 

o  -0244 

12-87 

0 

30-37 

555-5 

Q-I4 

o  -0246 

15-67 

+  5 

34-17 

552-43 

8-04 

o  -0247 

19-47 

+  10 

38-55 

549-35 

7-20 

0-0249 

23-85 

+  15 

42-93 

546-26 

6-46 

o  -0250 

28-23 

+  20 

47-95 

543-15 

5-82 

0-0252 

33-25 

+  25 

53-43 

540*03 

5-24 

0-0253 

38-73 

+  30 

59'4l 

536-92 

4'73 

0-0254 

44-71 

+  35 

65-93 

533-78 

4-28 

0-0256 

5r*23 

+  40 

73-00 

530-63 

3-88 

0-0257 

58-30 

+  45 

80-66 

527-47 

3-53 

0-0260 

65-96 

+  50 

88-96 

524-30 

3'2i 

0-02601 

74-26 

+  55 

97-63 

521-12 

2-93 

0-02603 

82-93 

+  60 

107-60 

5I7-93 

2-67 

0-0265 

92-90 

+  65 

118-03 

5I5-33 

2-45 

0-0266 

103-33 

+  70 

129-21 

511-52 

2-24 

0-0268 

114-51 

+  75 

141-25 

508-29 

2-05 

0-0270 

126-55 

+  80 

154-11 

504-66 

1-89 

0-0272 

I39H1 

+  85 

167-86 

501-81 

1-74 

0-0273 

+  90 

182-8 

498-11 

1-61 

0-274 

168-10 

+  95 

I98-37 

495-29 

1-48 

0-277 

183-67 

+  100 

215-14 

491-5° 

1-36 

0-279 

200-44 

REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL. 


45 


.- 
C  ° 


O   N   ON  tooo   PO  ON  PO  rJ-vQ   i-ivo   <->  N   w   ri-  PO  PO 
t^t^w    O    N  TO  vQ  TO    NOO 

POO 

i*    6    6    ONOO  TO   t^  t^  O  O 


w    O    N  TO  vQ  TO    NOO    t^t^O    ^O    l^vQ  O    t^  O 
O         TO    W   t^  W  TO    PO  ON  to  N  TO   to  w  o      to  N    O 


OOON.'-«ON>-i>-iO^N>-|OON  POO   M   PO  *">•  rj-  N   1-1 


OOON.'-« 

iO\>O   *-•   >-< 


M      ot-iv       WOO 


O  "O 
POrt- 
C^N 

O   O 


O    O    ONTO  TO   t^ 


O5  O  OO   ONO  to  rJ-OO 
CM  O   O^  POTO   POTO   PO 


~    M    O    O 


M  t^  to  10  vo 


PO  to  ON  ON  POTO   M   ON  N  O   1 
M  r-»vo  ON*O  «-ooo  N  O   ON 

TO  **    ^ 


MVO   O   «OM 


to  «OO  *O   t-»  t-^TO  CX)    ON  O1. 


8S*SS 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


O    MOO    PO  LO  PO  rj-  ON  O  CO    M    M   t^t^M    M   t^OCO   W> 
OO    *d"  O  OO  O  sO   *-O  LO  ^>-OO    *— '    ^t~  r^»  H*  *O    ""*  O    M  OO    LO 

MMMi-HN-i-ii-ibbbbbboNONONONbN 

O    ONOO    ^-ONM    MOO    M    M    r^ONLOt-^^-LOM    M 
O    «  CO  O    rj-  -3-  rh  rj-vO  OO    O    PO  t->.  1-1  O    >* 
POi-iOpvO    ^t-M    OOOO    ^  PO  **    ONOO  VO 

MOO^LOPOM_M  M  PO  ^o  ONMO  M  LO^O  PO 
^  ^S!~!!~!"!~!P.PPP.  9.  pcTNONdNdNON  ONOO  cb 

'5 
o 
I 

,0 

o 

2 

O  r-h  I/"*  O     «r4-  lf\  lS-\  i— i     ^^  t^f*\     /^svrt  (V^    *^\.<~*     (S|     (s|   QQ  y^    |s^ 

7  ^ 

^5 

ob  o  o  o'  f^.oo 
co  o 

^ 

M    PO  ^  M  CO    M    MONPOi-"VO   *>M    M   t^.O    O  CO  CO    PO 
O    O    POPOM    »^O    ONrf-PO"-"    POO    MOO 

««H-tbbbbboNONbNONONON  ONOO  ob  cb  do  cb 


l-!n  r-in  iH|M  r-l|M  1-lfM 

LOO  O    t^  r-^OO  OOOCT> 
N    M    M    M    M    M    M    M    M 


REFRIGERATION    IN   GENERAL. 


N'-oooNO'NOO'-'N  PO  n-o  oo 
"         ^*         °>J-ON  «       ONOO 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


VOLUME  OF  AMMONIA  GAS  AT  HIGH  TEMPERATURES. 
— (Redwood^) 


GAUGE 
PRESSURE 

TEMPERATURE  OF  GAS. 

60° 

74° 

80° 

84° 

90° 

95° 

VOLUME  OF  i  LB.  OF  GAS  IN  CUBIC  FEET. 

80 

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125 
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TEMPS.     F  AH. 

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MPS,     FAH. 

FIGS.  19  and  20.— Diagrams  showing  Curves  of  Latent  Heat  of  Vaporisation  (i  Ib. 
each  Saturated  Vapour),  and  Curves  of  Absolute  Pressure  for  Saturated  Vapours 
of  NH3,  SO2,  and  CO2,  from  -40°  to  +100°  Fahr.  i  Ib.  each  Saturated 
Vapour. — (Murray,  Inst.  Engrs.  and  Shipbuilders,  Scotland,  1897.) 


REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL. 


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fRIGERATION  IN   GENERAL. 


53 


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54 


REFRIGERATION   AND   ICE-MAKING. 


•j  saaaSaQ 
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+ 

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REFRIGERATION  IN  GENERAL. 


55 


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REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


USEFUL  EFFICIENCY  OF  AMMONIA. 

(Denton  and  Schroeter.) 


No. 

Temperature  in 
Degrees  Fahr. 
Corresponding  to 
Pressure  of  Vapour. 

See  Melting  Capacity  per  Pound  of  Coal, 
assuming  Three  Pounds  per  Hour  per 
Horse-power. 

of 

Test. 

Theoretical 

Per  Cent.  Loss 

denser. 

Suction. 

Friction  * 
included. 

Actual. 

due  to  Cylinder 
Super-heating. 

I 

72-3 

26-6 

5°'4 

4O'6 

19-4 

2 

70-5 

I4'3 

37-6 

30-0 

20-2 

3 

69-2 

0-5 

29-4 

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n-8 

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29-4 

24 

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15-0 

27-4 

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n-7 

26 

82-7 

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21-6 

I7-5 

19-0 

25 

84-6 

-10-8 

18-8 

H'5 

22-9 

*  Friction  taken  at  figures  observed  in  the  tests,  which  range  from 
14  per  cent,  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  work  of  the  steam  cylinder. 


LIQUID  RECEIVER. 

This  is  a  vessel  placed  between  the  condenser  and  the 
expansion  valve  to  receive  and  store  the  liquefied  ammonia. 
The  dimensions  of  the  liquid  receiver  should  be  sufficient 
to  hold  about  |-  gallon  for  each  ton  of  refrigerating  capacity 
in  24  hours.  The  liquid  receiver  also  serves  as  an  additional 
oil  trap.  If,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the  liquid  receiver 
is  intended  to  act  as  a  storage  vessel  for  all  the  charge  of 
liquefiable  ammonia  in  the  plant  in  case  of  repairs,  etc., 
it  should  be  provided  with  valves,  which  should  not  be 
closed  when  the  receiver  is  over  two-thirds  full.  Preferably 
the  receiver  should  be  made  large  enough  to  contain  twice 
the  charge  of  ammonia  to  avoid  explosions.  The  receiver 
is  provided  with  oil  and  liquid  gauges. 


REFRIGERATION  IN  GENERAL. 


61 


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Temperature  of  refrigerated  brine  j  Q^^ 

Specific  heat  of  brine  (per  unit  of  volume) 
guantity  of  brine  circulated  per  hour,  cubic 
old  produced,  B.T.U.  per  hour  .  . 

Temperature  of  cooling  water  in  condenser 

Quantity  of  cooling  water  per  hour  in  cubi 
Heat  eliminated  by  condenser  B.T.U.  per 
I.H.P.  in  compressor  cylinder 
I.H.P.  in  steam  engine  cylinder  .  . 
Consumption  of  steam  per  hour  in  Ibs. 
(  Per  I.H. 
Cold  produced  per  hour  B.T.U.  {  Per  I.H. 
(  Per  Ib.  c 

62 


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64 


REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


USEFUL  EFFICIENCY  OF  SULPHUR  DIOXIDE. 

(Schroeter.} 


No. 
of 
Test. 

Temperature  in  Degrees 
Fahr.  corresponding  to 
Pressure  of  Vapour. 

Ice  Melting  Capacity  per  Pound  of 
Coal,  assuming  Three  Pounds  per  Hour 
per  Horse-power. 

Condenser. 

Suction. 

Theoretical 
Friction  * 
included. 

Actual. 

Per  Cent. 
Loss  due  to 
Cylinder 
Super-heating. 

II 
12 
13 

«4 

77'3 
76-2 

75'2 
80-6 

28-5 
14-4 

-2'5 
-I5-9 

4I-3 

31-2 
23-0 

16-6 

33'i 
24-1 

I7'S 
io-  1 

I9'9 
22-8 
23-9 

39'2 

*  Friction  taken  at  figures  observed  in  the  tests  which  range  from 
14  per  cent,  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  work  of  the  steam  cylinder. 


EFFICIENCY       VALUES 


FIG.  21. — Diagram  giving  Efficiency  Curves  of  a  Perfect  Refrigerating  Machine  at 
Various  Limits  of  Temperature.— (Murray,  Snst.  oj  Engrs.  and  Shipbuilders, 
Scotland,  1897.) 


REFRIGERATION   IN   GENERAL. 


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66  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 

The  following  particulars  regarding  an  ether  machine 
are  given  *  by  Mr.  Lightfoot  as  being  the  result  of  actual 
experiments  made  in  this  country,  and  serving  to  show  what 
may  be  expected  under  ordinary  conditions : — 

Production  of  ice  per  twenty-four  hours  ' . .  15  tens. 

,,            ,,       per  hour . .         . .         . .  1,400  Ibs. 

Heat  abstracted  in  ice-making,  per  hour  . .  245,000  units  ** 
Indicated  horse-power  in  steam  cylinder, 

excluding  that  required  for  circulating  the 

cooling  water  and  for  working  cranes,  etc.  83  I .  H .  P. 

Indicated  horse-power  in  ether  pump  ..  46^  I.H.P. 
Thermal  equivalent  of  work  in  ether  pump, 

per  hour 119,261  units** 

Ratio  of  work  in  pump  to  work  in  ice-making  I  to  2-05 

Temperature  of  water  entering  condenser  52°  Fahr. 

Mr.  Frederick  Colyer,  C.E.,  M.I.C.E.,  states  t  that  he 
obtained  the  following  results  with  a  first-class  apparatus 
when  testing  the  working  of  some  of  the  leading  ether 
machines,  viz. :  "  In  an  ether  machine  made  by  Messrs. 
Siebe,  Gorman  and  Co.,  capable  of  cooling  3,200  gallons 
of  water  from  60°  down  to  50°,  or  abstracting  320,000  heat 
units**  per  hour,  the  average  experiments  gave  4,250  gal- 
lons per  hour  cooled  to  10°  Fahr.  The  temperature  of  the 
water  at  the  inlet  was  54°,  and  that  of  the  water  used  for 
condensing  purposes  was  the  same.  The  maximum  cooling 
effected  was  449,437  heat  units**  abstracted  per  hour, 
being  from  35  to  40  per  cent,  above  the  nominal  power  of 
the  machine.  The  condensing  water  used  per  hour  was 
1,262  gallons,  or  about  3-ioths  of  a  gallon  for  every  gallon 
of  water  cooled.  The  coal  consumed  was  3-5  cwts.  per 
hour;  it  was  of  indifferent  quality,  or  the  consumption 
would  have  been  smaller.  The  steam  cylinder  was  2 1  in. 
diameter  and  27  in.  stroke;  the  air-pump  24  in.  diameter 
and  27  in.  stroke.  The  speed  of  the  engine  was  58  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  with  48  Ibs.  of  steam  cut  off  at  one- 
third  of  the  stroke.  The  indicated  power  of  the  engine 
was  53  horse-power,  and  of  the  air-pump  29*2  horse-power. 
The  boiler  was  7  ft.  diameter  and  24  ft.  long,  and  gave  an 
ample  supply  of  steam." 

*  "  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,"  1886,  p.  214. 
**   A  thermal  unit  is  that  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  I  Ib.  of  water  i°  by  the  Fahr.  scale  when  at  39*4°. 

t  "  Proceedings,  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,"  1886,  p.  248. 


REFRIGERATION  IN   GENERAL. 


EFFICIENCY  OF  ETHER  MACHINES. 

Output  of  15  tons  of  ice  in  twenty-four  hours.  Ab- 
straction of  heat  per  hour,  245,000  B.T.U.  Indicated 
horse-power  of  engine,  83 ;  of  which  46  I.H.P.  was  used 
for  the  ether  compressor,  balance  in  pumping  water,  work- 
ing cranes,  friction,  etc.  Temperature  of  cooling  water,  52°. 

Ice  production,  about  8-3  tons  of  ice  per  ton  of  coal 
consumed. 

PICTET'S  LIQUID. 


Temperature 
Degrees  Fahr. 

Pressure 
(Absolute) 
in  Atmospheres. 

Temperature 
Degrees  Fahr. 

Pressure 
(Absolute) 
in  Atmospheres. 

—  22 

0-77 

50 

2'55 

—  !3 

0-89 

2-98 

-4 

0-98 

68 

3-40 

—  2'2 
5 

I  -00 

ri8 

11 

3-92 
4'45 

14 

!'34 

95 

5-05 

23 

i  -60 

104 

572 

32 

1-83 

"3 

6-30 

4* 

2  -2O 

122 

6-86 

FORMULA  FOR  CALCULATING  THE  AMOUNT  OF  AIR  DE- 
LIVERED PER  HOUR  BY  COLD-AIR  MACHINES,  WHEN 
THE  REVOLUTIONS  AND  THE  SIZE  OF  THE  COMPRES- 
SORS ARE  KNOWN. 

(Haslanfs  Catalogue  of  "  Ice-mating  and  Refrigerating  Machinery.") 


A  X  N  X  2R  X  S  X  60 

1728 


xc 


Air  discharged  per  hour  = 

Where  A  =  area  of  each  compressor,  in  inches. 
N  =  number  of  compressors. 
2R  =  strokes  per  minute  (or  twice  the  revolutions). 
60  =  minutes  per  hour. 
S  =  stroke  in  inches. 
1728  =  cubic  inches  in  one  foot. 

C  =  factor  of  efficiency  which  is  taken  as  o'8  for 
short  strokes,  and  0*85  for  long  strokes. 


SECTION   II. 

COLD   STORAGE. 

COLD  storage  may  be  defined  as  the  preservation  of  perish- 
able articles  by  keeping  them  in  rooms  or  chambers 
maintained  constantly  at  a  low  temperature  by  refrigeration  ; 
and  refrigeration  may  be  denned  as  the  maintenance  of  any 
place  at  a  lower  temperature  than  that  of  the  atmosphere. 

A  most  important  point  in  the  construction  of  a  cold 
store  is  the  insulation,  and  it  is  almost  superfluous  to 
observe  that  the  aim  is  to  render  this  latter  as  perfect 
as  possible,  so  as  to  afford  as  great  a  protection  as  is 
practicable  against  the  escape  of  the  cold  air  from  the 
interior  and  the  transmission  of  heat  from  the  exterior. 

The  refrigeration  of  cold  stores  may  be  carried  out  on 
the  brine  circulation  system,  the  direct  expansion  system, 
and  the  air-blast  system.  In  the  first,  refrigerated  or 
cooled  brine  is  circulated  through  cooling  pipes,  or  their 
equivalent,  arranged  in  the  cold  store ;  and  in  the  second 
the  ammonia  or  refrigerating  medium  is  allowed  to  expand 
direct  in  the  above  pipes.  In  the  third,  or  air-blast 
system,  air  reduced  to  a  low  temperature  by  passing  it 
over  cooled  pipes  or  surfaces,  or  by  means  of  a  cold-air 
machine,  is  admitted  to  the  store. 

The  dimensions  of  cold  stores  vary,  from  that  of  a  few 
cubic  feet  space,  such  as  those  in  private  houses,  hotels, 
butchers'  shops,  etc.,  up  to  those  of  several  millions  of 
cubic  feet.  In  the  case  of  a  large  store  it  is  found  most 
advantageous  to  arrange  for  the  delivery  of  goods  to  or 
from  the  store  to  take  place  from  the  highest  part  of  the 
building,  as  by  this  means  greater  obstacles  are  offered 
to  the  transmission  of  heat  from  the  exterior  to  the  interior 


COLD  STORAGE.  69 

of  the  store,  and  also  to  the  escape  of  the  cold  air  there- 
from, which  latter,  owing  to  its  being  heavier  than  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere,  and  to  its  consequent  tendency  to 
sink  to  the  lowest  level,  will  not  escape  from  above,  whilst 
it  does  so  readily  from  any  open  aperture  at  a  lower  level. 


AMOUNT  OF  REFRIGERATION  REQUIRED. 

The  refrigeration  required  will  be  governed  by  the  size 
of  the  store,  the  amount  of  and  frequency  with  which  the 
goods  are  brought  into  the  store  and  removed  from  it, 
the  temperature  of  the  goods,  and  their  specific  heat,  the 
mean  external  temperature,  the  greater  or  lesser  perfection 
of  the  insulation,  and  various  other  matters,  which  render 
it  totally  impossible  to  lay  down  any  hard-and-fast  rules. 

A  very  usual  practice  is  to  provide  i  foot  run  of  2-inch 
pipe  for  every  7  cubic  feet  of  space  contained  in  the  store, 
but  sometimes  the  proportion  used  is  as  much  as  one 
to  five,  whilst  again  it  is  occasionally  reduced  to  one  to 
twelve.  For  refrigerating  meat,  in  which  case  it  is  not 
desirable  to  cool  the  exterior  too  rapidly  before  the  interior 
has  had  time  to  cool  to  a  certain  extent,  the  best  proportion 
to  employ  is  one  to  ten. 


AMOUNT  OF  REFRIGERATING  PIPES  NECESSARY  FOR 
CHILLING,  STORAGE,  AND  FREEZING  CHAMBERS. 

Chilling-rooms  or  Chambers,  refrigerated  on  the  direct 
expansion  system,  i  ft.  run  of  2 -in.  piping  for  each  14  c.  ft. 
of  space ;  on  the  brine-circulation  system,  i  ft.  run  of  2-in. 
piping  for  each  8  c.  ft.  of  space. 

Freezing-rooms  or  Chambers,  refrigerated  on  the  direct 
expansion  system,  i  ft.  run  of  2-in.  piping  for  each  8  c.  ft. 
of  space;  on  the  brine-circulation  system,  i  ft.  run  for 
each  3  c.  ft.  of  space. 

Storage-rooms  or  Chambers,  refrigerated  on  the  direct 
expansion  system,  i  ft.  run  of  2-in.  piping  for  each  45  c.  ft. 
of  space ;  on  the  brine-circulation  system,  i  ft.  run  of  2-in. 
piping  for  each  1 5  c.  ft.  of  space. 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


THE    FOLLOWING    TABLE    GIVES    THE    EXTREME    LIMITS    OF 

CUBIC  FEET  OF  SPACE  PER  RUNNING  FOOT  OF  2-iNCH 
PIPING. — American  Practice. 
Breweries — Medium  insulation. 


Chip  and  Stock  Rooms 

Fermenting  and  Settling  Rooms     . . 

Packing  Rooms 

Hop  Rooms 
Packing  House. 

Chill  Rooms  for  Beef  

Hogs 

Freezing  Rooms         , 

Cold  Storage. 

Cold  Storage  Rooms. . 

Cold  Storage  House  and  Freezing  Rooms . 

For  Eggs,  brine  preferred 

Cold  Storage 

Ice  Storage 

Fish  Freezing  (Direct  Expansion) 


to  22 

„   20 

„  18 

» 25 


12 
10 

6  or 


or  30 


12 

25 

2O 

2 


The  following  five  tables  are  given  by  Prof.  Siebel  in  the 
"  Compend  of  Mechanical  Refrigeration" 

LINEAL  FEET  OF  I-INCH  PIPING  REQUIRED  PER  CUBIC  FOOT 
OF  COLD  STORAGE  SPACE. 


vpl 

1 

08 

TEMPERATURE,  DEGREES  FAHR. 

Klll 

3 

p 

Hi 

o  , 

IO°. 

20°. 

30°. 

40°. 

50°. 

TOO 

Excellent. 

3-o 

1-78 

0^8 

0-36 

O-24 

0-15 

Poor. 

b-o 

1-50 

O-9O 

0-66 

0-48 

0-30 

1,000 

Excellent. 

ro 

0-26 

0-16 

O-I2 

0'08 

0-05 

Poor. 

2-O 

0-50 

0-30 

0-22 

0-16 

o-io 

10,000 

Excellent. 

0-61 

0-16 

O'lO 

0-075 

0-055 

0-035 

30,000 

Poor. 
Excellent. 

1-2 

0-13 

0-20 
0-08 

"I 
0-06 

o-ii 

0-040 

0-07 
0-025 

100,000 

Poor. 
Excellent. 

i-o 

0-38 

0-25 
o-io 

0-15 
O'O6 

O'H 

0-045 

0-03 
0-03 

0-05 
0-009 

Poor. 

0-75 

O'2O 

0-12 

O-O9 

0-06 

0-018 

NOTE. — The  above  quantities  of  pipe  refer  to  direct  expansion,  and 
should  be  made  one  and  one-half  times  to  twice  the  length  for  brine 
circulation.  To  find  the  corresponding  lengths  of  i^-inch  pipe,  divide 
by  1*25  or  multiply  by  0-8  ;  of  2-inch  pipe  divide  by  1-08,  or  multiply 
by  0-55. 


COLD  STORAGE.  71 

NUMBER  OF  CUBIC  FEET  COVERED  BY  ONE  FOOT  OF  I-INCH 
IRON  PIPE. 


JTf  jj 

"8  ««*>- 

2.s*g 

.2 

15 

TEMPERATURE,  DEGREES  FAHR. 

.22;s° 
w-s^S 

mOg     i 

3 

1 

0°. 

10°. 

20°. 

30°. 

40°. 

50°. 

100 

Excellent. 

0-3 

i'3 

2'I 

2-8 

4'2 

7-0 

Poor. 

0-15 

07 

I'l 

**5 

2'I 

3'5 

1,000 

Excellent. 

1-0 

4-0 

6-0 

8-4 

I2'4 

20-0 

Poor. 

°*5 

2'O 

3'2 

4*5 

6-2 

IO'O 

10,000 

Excellent. 

17 

6-0 

IO'O 

13-0 

18-0 

28-0 

Poor. 

0-85 

3-0 

5'0 

6-5 

9-0 

I4*O 

30,000 

Excellent. 

2'0 

8-0 

14-0 

18-0 

25-0 

40-0 

Poor. 

I'O 

4-0 

7-0 

9-0 

13-0 

20-0 

100,000 

Excellent. 

2'6 

IO'O 

17-0 

22-0 

33'0 

IIO'O 

Poor. 

i'3 

S'O 

8'S 

I  I'O 

17-0 

55-o 

NOTE. — The  above  figures  refer  to  direct  expansion,  from  one-half  to 
two-thirds  of  the  spaces  only  would  be  covered  by  the  same  amount  of 
pipe  in  case  of  brine  circulation.  To  find  the  corresponding  amounts 
of  cubic  feet  of  space  which  would  be  covered  by  one  lineal  foot  of 
i^-in.  pipe,  multiply  by  1-25  or  divide  by  0*8;  of  2-in.  pipe,  multiply 
by  1-08  or  divide  by  0-55. 


NUMBER  OF  CUBIC  FEET  COVERED  BY  I-TON  REFRIGERAT- 
ING CAPACITY  FOR  24  HOURS. 


•sfll 

c 

TEMPERATURE,  DEGREES  FAHR. 

.32--  ° 

*3 

WO  H 

s 

0°. 

10°. 

20°. 

30°. 

40°. 

SO0- 

100 

Excellent. 

15° 

600 

800 

1000 

1600 

3000 

Poor. 

70 

300 

400 

600 

900 

2OOO 

1,000 

Excellent. 

500 

2500 

3000 

4000 

6000 

12000 

Poor. 

250 

1500 

1800 

2500 

5OOO 

IOOOO 

10,000 

Excellent. 

7OO 

3000 

4000 

6000 

9000 

18000 

Poor. 

300 

1800 

2500 

3500 

7OOO 

I4OOO 

30,000 

Excellent. 

1OOO 

5000 

6000 

8000 

13000 

25000 

Poor. 

500 

3000 

3500 

5000 

IIOOO 

20000 

100,000 

Excellent. 

1500 

7500 

9000 

14000 

20000 

40000 

Poor. 

800 

4500 

5000 

8000 

I600O 

35000 

REFRIGERATION   AND   ICE-MAKING. 


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COLD  STORAGE. 


73 


ROUGH  ESTIMATE  OF  REFRIGERATION  IN  BREWERIES. 

A  ready  method  of  obtaining  a  rough  estimate  in  tons  of 
the  amount  of  refrigeration  required  in  a  brewery  is  to 
divide  the  capacity  of  the  brewery  in  barrels  by  4. 


REFRIGERATING  CAPACITY  IN  B.T.U.  REQUIRED  PER 
CUBIC  FOOT  OF  STORAGE  ROOM  IN  TWENTY-FOUR 
HOURS. 


iP! 

I    ' 

TEMPERATURE,  DEGREES  FAHR. 

.S2'5  o 

3 

Icj  I 

1 

0°. 

10°. 

20°. 

30°. 

4o°. 

50°. 

100 

Excellent. 
Poor. 

1,  800 

4,000 

480 
960 

480 

284 
470 

1  80 
330 

95 
140 

1,000 

Excellent. 
Poor. 

550 

I,IOO 

no 
190 

95 
165 

70 

1  10 

47 
55 

3 

ro,ooo 

Excellent. 
Poor. 

400 

900 

95 
1  60 

70 
no 

47 
81 

30 
40 

16 

20 

30,000 

Excellent. 
Poor. 

280 
550 

55 
95 

47 
81 

35 
55 

22 
26 

II 

100,000 

Excellent. 
Poor. 

190 
350 

11 

30 

55 

20 

35 

18 

7 
4 

VARIATION  IN  CAPACITY,  ETC.,  OF  A  REFRIGERATING 
MACHINE. 

The  following  diagram  (Fig.  22)  and  table  (on  page  75), 
showing  the  variation  in  capacity,  etc.,  of  a  refrigerating 
machine,  and  the  economy  of  direct  expansion,  is  drawn 
up  by  the  De  La  Vergne  Company  : — 


74  REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


•40°     35       30°      25°      2OM     IS 
SS      SI       4S      39        33 


10° 
24- 


25 


45 


0°      -5°    -10°  -13* 
16        13       9         ff 


FIG.  22.  —  Diagram  showing  Variation  in  Ca 
Required  of  a  Refrigerating  Machine. 


ity,  Cost  of  Fuel,  and  Work 
La  Vergne  Company.} 


In  the  above  diagram  the  line  marked  "capacity  of 
machine  "  shows  the  diminished  capacity  as  the  back  pres- 
sure is  reduced.  If  the  machine  has  a  capacity  of  ten  tons 
at  a  return  pressure  of  28  pounds,  as  shown  by  vertical 
height  of  the  curve,  it  has  a  capacity  of  five  tons  only  with 
a  return  pressure  of  six  pounds.  Under  the  same  circum- 
stances the  cost  of  fuel  per  ton  is  increased  in  the  ratio 
of  the  vertical  heights  to  the  curve  marked  "  cost  of  fuel," 
namely,  from  14-5  to  25.  In  other  words,  the  cost  per  ton 
is  nearly  doubled  while  the  capacity  is  halved.  The  work, 
as  seen  by  the  curve  marked  "work  required,"  diminishes 
very  slowly. 


COLD  STORAGE. 


75 


This  shows  very  plainly  the  economy  of  direct  expansion. 
The  ammonia  in  the  coils  of  the  brine  tank  must  be  cooled 
below  the  brine  or  the  directly  expanded  ammonia.  If  the 
difference  be  10°,  say  5°  instead  of  15°,  then  the  capacity 
of  the  machine  is  reduced  in  the  ratio  of  10  to  8,  or  20  per 
cent.,  and  the  cost  for  fuel  increased  in  the  ratio  of  from 
i4'5  to  17*5,  or  20  per  cent. 

These  are  physical  facts  which  cannot  be  explained  away, 
and  the  economy  of  direct  expansion  in  practice  over  both 
brine  and  air  circulation  is  usually  greater  than  the  diagram 
and  table  illustrates. 


CUBIC  FEET  OF  AMMONIA  GAS  PER  MINUTE  TO  PRODUCE 
ONE  TON  OF  REFRIGERATION  PER  DAY. 

CONDENSER. 


P 

103 

US 

127 

139 

153 

1  68 

185 

200 

218 

P 

t 

65° 

70° 

75° 

80° 

85« 

90° 

95° 

100° 

105° 

. 

4 

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5-84 

5'9 

5-96 

6-03 

6-09 

6-16 

6-23 

6-30 

6-43 

o 

6 

~~  I5° 

5'35 

5*4 

5'46 

5-52 

5^8 

5°^4 

570 

577 

5-83 

H 

9 

-10° 

4-66 

473 

476 

4'8l 

4'86 

4-91 

4'97 

5-05 

5-08 

13 

-5° 

4-09 

4-12 

4-17 

4'2I 

4^5 

4.30 

4*35 

4-40 

4*44 

16 

o° 

3'59 

3*63 

3;66 

370 

374 

378 

3;83 

3-87 

3-9I 

— 

20 

5° 

3-20 

3'24 

3-30 

3'34 

3-38 

3'45 

3'49 

w 

£ 

24 

10° 

2-87 

2-9 

2'93 

2*96 

2'99 

3-02 

3-06 

3-09 

3-12 

28 

15° 

2-61 

2-65 

2-68 

271 

273 

276 

2-80 

2-82 

33 

20° 

2-31 

2'34 

2-36 

2-38 

2-41 

2'44 

2-46 

2'49 

2-51 

39 

25° 

2-06 

2-08 

2'IO 

2'12 

2-15 

2-17 

2'20 

2'22 

2-24 

45 

30° 

1-85 

1-87 

1-89 

1-9! 

1-97 

2-00 

2-01 

35° 

170 

172 

174 

176 

177 

179 

1-81 

I-83 

1-85 

DETERMINATION  OF  MOISTURE  IN  AIR. — (Siebel.) 

The  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  may  be  determined  by 
a  wet-bulb  thermometer,  which  is  an  ordinary  thermometer, 
the  bulb  of  which  is  covered  with  muslin  kept  wet,  and 


?6  REFRIGERATION   AND   ICE-MAKING. 

which  is  exposed  to  the  air,  the  moisture  of  which  is  to 
be  ascertained.  Owing  to  the  evaporation  of  the  water 
on  the  [  muslin,  the  thermometer  will  shortly  acquire  a 
stationary  temperature,  which  is  always  lower  than  that  of 
the  surrounding  air  (except  when  the  latter  is  actually 
saturated  with  moisture).  If  /  is  the  temperature  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  /x  the  temperature  of  the  wet-bulb  ther- 
mometer in  degrees  Celsius,  the  tension  e,  of  the  aqueous 
vapour  in  the  atmosphere,  is  found  by  the  formula  — 

e  =  <?!  —  o  '00077^—  /J/&!  • 

el  being  the  maximum  tension  of  aqueous  vapour  for  the 
temperature  ^  as  found  in  table,  and  h  the  barometric 
length  in  millimeters.  (See  table,  p.  77.) 

If  ez  is  the  maximum  tension  of  aqueous  vapour  for  the 
temperature  /,  the  degree  of  saturation,  H,  is  expressed 
by- 


and  the  dew  point  is  also  readily  found  in  the  same  table, 
it  being  the  temperature  corresponding  to  the  tension  e. 

PSYCHROMETERS. 

Instead  of  the  wet-bulb  thermometer  alone,  it  is  more 
convenient  to  use  two  exact  thermometers  combined  (one 
with  a  wet  bulb  and  the  other  with  a  dry  bulb,  to  give 
the  temperature  of  the  air),  to  determine  the  hygrometric 
condition  of  the  atmosphere,  or  of  the  air  in  a  room. 
Instruments  on  this  principle  can  be  readily  bought,  and 
are  called  psychrometers.  If  they  are  arranged  with  a 
handle,  so  that  they  can  be  whirled  around,  they  are  called 
"  sling  psychrometers."  These  permit  a  quicker  correct 
reading  of  the  wet-bulb  thermometer  than  the  plain  psychro- 
meter,  in  which  the  thermometers  are  stationary  and  are 
impracticable  at  a  temperature  below  32°  Fahr.,  while  the 
sling  instrument  can  be  read  down  to  27°  Fahr. 


COLD  STORAGE. 


77 


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oooooooooooooooooooooooooo 


REFRIGERATION   AND   ICE-MAKING. 


The  hygrometer  of  Professor  Marvin  is  a  sling  psychro- 
meter  of  improved  construction. 

HYGROMETERS. 

While  the  term  "  hygrometer "  applies  to  all  instruments 
calculated  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air, 
it  is  specifically  used  to  designate  instruments  on  which 
the  degree  of  humidity  can  be  read  off  directly  on  a  scale 
without  calculation  and  table.  Their  operation  is  based 
on  the  change  of  the  length  of  a  hair,  or  similar  hygroscopic 
substance  under  different  conditions  of  humidity. 

Table  giving  weights  of  aqueous  vapour  held  in  sus- 
pension by  100  Ibs.  of  pure  dry  air  when  saturated,  at 
different  temperatures,  and  under  the  ordinary  atmospheric 
pressure  of  29^9  in.  of  mercury. — (Box  and  Light/oof.) 


Temper- 
ature. 

Weight  of 
vapour. 

Temper- 
ature. 

Weight  of 
vapour. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

degs. 

Ibs. 

degs. 

Ibs. 

—  20 

0-0350 

102 

4-547 

—  10 

0-0574 

112 

6-253 

0 

0-0918 

122 

8-584 

+  10 

0-1418 

132 

II-77I 

20 

0-2265 

I42 

16-170 

32 

G'379 

IS2 

22-465 

42 

0-561 

162 

31*713 

52 

0-819 

172 

46*338 

62 

I-I79 

182 

7I-300 

72 

1-680 

192 

122-643 

89 

2-361 

202 

280-230 

92 

3-289 

212 

Infinite 

N.B. — The  weight  in  Ibs.  of  the  vapour  mixed  with 
100  Ibs.  of  pure  air  at  any  given  temperature  and  pressure 
is  given  by  the  formula — 

62-3E    _  29-9 


29'9-E        / 

Where  E  =  elastic  force  of  the  vapour  at  the  given  tem- 
perature, in  inches  of  mercury  (to  be  taken 
from  Tables). 

/  =  absolute  pressure  in  inches  of  mercury. 
=  2 9' 9  for  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure. 


COLD  STORAGE. 


79 


CORRECT  RELATIVE  HUMIDITY  FOR  A  GIVEN  TEMPERA- 
TURE IN  EGG  ROOMS. — (Madison  Cooper.) 


TEMPERATURE    IN 
DEGREES    FAHR. 

RELATIVE  HUMIDITY 
PER  CENT. 

28 

80 

29 

78 

30 

76 

31 

74 

32 

71 

33 

69 

34 

67 

65 

36 

62 

37 

60 

38 

5? 

39 

56 

40 

53 

SPECIFIC  HEAT  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  VICTUALS. 


Water. 

Solids. 

Specific 
rleat  above 
Freezing 
Calc. 

Specific 
Heat  below 
Freezing 
Calc. 

Latent 
Heat  of 
Freezing 
Calc. 

Lean  beef   .  . 

72-00 

28-00 

0-77 

0-41 

102 

Fat  beef      .  . 

51-00 

49-00 

0-60 

0'34 

72 

Veal 

63-00 

37-00 

0-70 

0-39 

90 

Fat  pork     .  . 

39-00 

61-00 

0-5I 

0-30 

55 

Eggs 

70-00 

30-00 

0-76 

0-40 

IOO 

Potatoes      .  . 

74-00 

26-00 

0-80 

0-42 

105 

Cabbages    .  . 

9I-00 

9-00 

0-93 

0-48 

129 

Carrots 

83-00 

17-00 

0-87 

o-45 

118 

Cream 

59^5 

3075 

0-68 

0-38 

84 

Milk 

87-50 

12-50 

0-90 

0-47 

124 

Oysters 
White  fish  .. 

80-38 
78-00 

19-62 

22-00 

0-84 
0-82 

0-44 
o-43 

114 
in 

Eels 

62-07 

37-93 

0-69 

0-38 

88 

Lobsters 

76-62 

23-38 

0-81 

0-42 

108 

Pigeons 

72-40 

27-60 

0-78 

0-41 

Poultry 

7370 

26-30 

0-80 

0-42 

80 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


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II 

COLD  STORAGE. 


MEAN  TEMPERATURES  OF  PRINCIPAL  CITIES  OF  THE 
WORLD. 


CITIES. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Annual. 

ENGLAND. 

Degs. 
Fahr. 

Degs. 
Fahr. 

Degs. 
Fahr. 

Degs. 
Fahr. 

Degs. 
Fahr. 

Birmingham    .  . 

48-0 

62-0 

5°'° 

34'2 

48-2 

Bristol.. 
Liverpool 

497 
48-8 

63-0 
62-9 

SI'S 
SI'S 

40-0 

39'8 

5I-05 
50-8 

London           .  . 

49'° 

62-8 

5i-3 

39'5 

50-6 

Manchester     .  . 

48-0 

62-0 

50-5 

34-8 

48-8 

SCOTLAND. 

Edinburgh 

457 

57-9 

48-0 

38-5 

47'5 

Glasgow 

47'9 

60-9 

50-5 

39'9 

49-8 

IRELAND. 

Belfast.. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

52-1 

Dublin 

— 

— 

— 

— 

50-1 

FRANCE. 

Bordeaux 

— 

— 

— 

— 

57'0 

Boulogne 

— 

— 

— 

— 

54'4 

Marseilles 

— 

— 

— 

— 

58-3 

Nice 

55'9 

72-5 

63-0 

487 

60-  1 

Paris    .. 

— 

— 

S*'3 

GERMANY. 

Berlin 

46-4 

63-1 

47-8 

30-6 

47'5 

Breslau 

— 

— 

46-7 

Buda  Pesth    .  . 

— 

— 

— 

— 

47'5 

Dresden 

— 

— 

— 

— 

49-1 

Frankfort 

— 

— 

— 

— 

49-6 

Hamburg 

— 

— 

— 

— 

48-0 

Leipsic 

— 

— 

— 

— 

46-4 

Munich 

— 

— 

— 

— 

48-4 

Trieste 

53-8 

7^5 

56-6 

39'S 

55'8 

Vienna 

49*5 

63-9 

52-8 

39'9 

ITALY. 

Florence 
Genoa 

— 

— 

— 

— 

59-2 

01*1 

Milan 

— 

— 

— 

— 

55*1 

Naples 

59'5 

74'5 

62-5 

49-9 

61-6 

Palermo 

59'5 

74'5 

65*9 

52-0 

63-1 

Rome 

57'4 

73'2 

61-7 

46-6 

597 

Turin 

53'i 

71-6 

53-8 

33*4 

53'i 

Venice 

"~"~ 

55-4 

86 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


MEAN    TEMPERATURES    OF 
WORLD. — 


PRINCIPAL    CITIES    OF    THE 
(Continued.} 


CITIES. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Annual. 

SPAIN  &  PORTUGAL. 

Fahr. 

Degs. 
Fahr. 

Degs. 
Fahr. 

Degs. 
Fahr. 

Degs. 
Fahr. 

Barcelona 









63*0 

Madrid 

57-6 

74-1 

567 

42-I 

57-6 

Lisbon 

59*9 

71-1 

62-5 

61-4 

SWITZERLAND. 

Berne 

45'8 

60-4 

47'3 

30-4 

46-0 

Geneva 

— 

— 

527 

HOLLAND. 

Amsterdam    .  . 

— 

— 

— 

— 

49'9 

Rotterdam 

— 

— 

— 

— 

51-0 

BELGIUM. 

Brussels 

— 

— 

— 

— 

507 

NORW  AY  &  SWEDEN. 

Christiania 

39-2 

59'5 

42-4 

25-2 

41-7 

Stockholm      .  . 

61-0 

43-8 

DENMARK. 

Copenhagen   •  . 

437 

63-0 

48-5 

31'5 

46-8 

RUSSIA. 

Moscow 

43'3 

62-6 

34*9 

13-5 

38'S 

Nicolaief 

49  '3 

72-2 

50-0 

25-9 

487 

St.  Petersburg.. 
Warsaw 

44-6 

60-3 
63-5 

4°'5 
46-4 

16-6 
27-5 

38-3 
45'5 

TURKEY. 

Bucharest 



_ 



_ 

46-4 

Constantinople. 

SI'S 

73'4 

60-4 

40-6 

567 

PALESTINE. 

Jerusalem 

60-6 

72-6 

66-3 

49-6 

62-2 

EGYPT. 

Cairo    .  .    1 

71-6 

84-6 

74'3 

58-5 

72-3 

ALGERIA.        j 

Algiers 

63-0 

74'5 

70'S 

50-4 

64-6 

Tunis  .. 

~~ 

68-8 

COLD  STORAGE. 


MEAN    TEMPERATURES    OF    PRINCIPAL    CITIES    OF   THE 
WORLD. — ( Continued.} 


CITIES. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Annual. 

NORTH  AMERICA. 

Degs. 
Fahr. 

Degs. 
Fahr. 

Degs. 
Fahr. 

Degs. 
Fahr. 

Degs. 
Fahr. 

Baltimore 

60  -o 

83-0 

64-6 

43'5 

54*9 

Boston 

48-0 

66-0 

53'O 

28-0 

49-0 

Chicago 

S2-8 

74'5 

61-3 

38-5 

45'9 

Cincinnati 

63-2 

81-8 

66-4 

46*6 

Mexico 

53-6 

63-5 

65-1 

60-2 

60-5 

Montreal 

44'2 

69-1 

47-1 

I7-5 

43'7 

New  Orleans    . 

73'0 

84-0 

72-0 

58-0 

72-0 

New  York 

50-0 

72-0 

56-0 

53'° 

Philadelphia     . 

52-0 

76-0 

57'° 

34-0 

55-0 

Quebec 

— 

— 

— 

— 

4°'3 

San  Francisco  . 

58-0 

59'° 

60-0 

53'Q 

57'5 

St.  Louis 

84-6 

67-8 

44-6 

46-0 

55'° 

Washington  .  . 

69-0 

79-0 

58-0 

38-0 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Buenos  Aires  .  . 

59*4 

73'° 

64-6 

S2-5 

62-5 

Lima   .. 

63-0 

73'2 

69-6 

59'° 

66-2 

Quito  .. 
Rio  Janeiro    .  . 

60-3 
72-5 

60-  1 
79-0 

62-5 
74*5 

60-  1 

Valparaiso 

— 

— 

64-0 

EAST  INDIES. 

Bombay 

— 

—  ' 

— 

— 

81-3 

Calcutta 

82-6 

83-3 

80-0 

67-8 

78-4 

Madras 

— 

— 

— 

— 

81-9 

WEST  INDIES. 

Havanna         ,  . 

— 

— 

— 



79-1 

Kingstown 

78-3 

81-3 

80-0 

76-3 

79*° 

Port  of  Spain  .  . 

— 

81-5 

CHINA. 

Canton           .  . 

69-8 

82-0 

72'9 

54'8 

69-8 

Pekin  .. 

56-6 

77-8 

54'9 

29-0 

52-6 

AUSTRALASIA. 

Melbourne 



— 





57'° 

Paramatta 

66-6 

73'9 

64-8 

54*5 

64-6 

Sydney 

— 

— 

— 

65-8 

CANARY  ISLANDS. 

Funchal          .  . 

63-5 

70-0 

67-6 

61-3 

657 

NEW  ZEALAND. 

Auckland        .  , 

60-  1 

66-7 

58-0 

53'5 

59*6 

88  REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


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QO  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 

COLD    STORAGE    CHARGES   (England], 

Cambria  Cold  Storage  and  Ice  Co.,  Ltd. 
MEAT. 

First  Each  p 


24  Hours.  ~c«l         We. 

Beef,  Quarters,  each         ..         ..         i/-         ..  6d.         ..     2/- 

Sheep  and  Lambs,  each  .  .         .  .         6d.         .  .  3d.         .  .      1/6 

Pigs  and  Calves,  each       .  .         .  .         i/-         .  .  6d.         .  .      2/- 

Beasts'  Heads  (with  tongues),  each  i  Jd.  per  week  or  any  part  thereof. 

(without    „  ),     „         id.        „  „ 

Sheeps  Heads  and  Plucks   \ 

Beasts'  Livers       ..  .  .  [      „         id.        ,,  „ 

Beasts'  Plucks,  &c.  .  .  ) 

Beasts'  Tails,  per  doz.      ..         ..        4d.         ,,  ,, 

Pieces  of  Meat,  in  packages        .  .  ^d.  per  Ib.  „  „ 

Minimum  Charge,  3d. 

FISH,  GAME,  AND  POULTRY. 

Fish  (wet),  small  quantities  9d.  per  cwt.  per  week  or  any  part  thereof. 

„         large  quantities  6d.         „  ,,  „ 

Kippers  &  Finnon,  per  box  2d.  each  and  upwards  per  week  or  any  part 

thereof. 
Loose  Fish  ......  2d.  each  and  upwards  per  week  or  any  part 

thereof. 

Poultry  and  Game  .  .         .  .  i/-  per  cwt.  per  week  or  any  part  thereof. 
Frozen    Poultry,  in    large 

quantities        .  .  .  2O/-  per  ton  for  28  days  „ 

Chickens,  loose 
Rabbits,  in  hampers 
Rabbits,  loose 
Rabbits,  Frozen,  in  cases 


.  i  Jd.  per  couple  per  week 
.pd.  per  cwt.  per  week 
.id.  per  couple  per  week  ,, 

small  quantities,  6d.  per  case  j 


per  case  per  week  or 
any  part  thereof. 
Rabbits,  Frozen,  large  quantities,  17/6  per  ton  for  28  days  or  any  part 

thereof. 

Pheasants,  i|d.  per  brace  ist  week,  id.  per  brace  each  succeeding  week. 
Partridge  and  Grouse,  id.  per  brace  per  week  or  any  part  thereof. 
Hares,  Turkeys  and  Geese,  2d.  each  „  „ 

Minimum  Charge,  3d. 

PROVISIONS. 
Butter,  small  quantities,  6d.  per  cwt.  per  week  or  any  part  thereof. 

,,  „  2O/-  per  ton  for  28  days  or  any  portion  thereof. 

„      2  tons  and  upwards,  1 6/- 
Bacon        „  „          14;- 

Cheese       „  „         12/6 

Lard          „  „          I5/- 

Eggs          „  „          I7/- 


COLD  STORAGE. 


CONDITIONS  OF  DEPOSIT  AND  REGULATIONS. 

The  Conditions  of  Deposit  are  as  follows  : — 

The  Cambria  Cold  Storage  and  Ice  Co.,  Ltd.,  receive  goods  on  the 
following  conditions  only  : — 

I . — No  goods  will  be  given  up  without  the  production  of  a  ticket, 
which  is  delivered  to  the  person  when  goods  are  brought  to 
Stores,  or  satisfactory  evidence  of  ownership. 

2. — All  consignments  to  the  Stores  must  be  plainly  marked  with  the 
owner's  name  and  address,  and  date. 

3. — All  payments  for  storage  must  be  made  when  the  goods  are 
delivered. 

4. — The  Company  will  not  be  responsible  for  any  loss  or  damage  to 
goods  stored  by  them,  through  maintaining  too  high  or  too  low 
a  temperature  in  the  Stores,  failure  of  machinery,  fire,  or  any 
other  cause  whatsoever ;  but  the  Company  will  always,  and  at 
all  times,  use  their  utmost  endeavours  to  prevent  any  such 
damage,  and  will  render  all  assistance  in  their  power  to  properly 
preserve  and  keep  goods  entrusted  to  their  care. 

5. — The  Company  reserve  to  themselves  the  right  to  refuse  any  goods 
that,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Manager,  or  his  representative,  are 
unfit  to  store. 

6. — The  Company  will  hold  all  goods  stored  by  them  subject  to  a 

feneral  lien  for  all  debts  due  by  Depositors   on  account  of 
torage. 

7. — Stores  open  for  receiving  and  delivering  goods: — "Week-days, 
6  a.m.  to  5  p.m. ;  Saturday,  6  a.m.  to  5  p.m.,  and  10.30  p.m. 
to  ii.30jp.rn." 

COLD   STORAGE   CHARGES   (United  States]. 


Substance. 

Temperature. 
Degrees. 

Month. 

For  the 
Season. 

Remarks. 

Salt  meat 

32  to  36 

25  to  3  5  cents 



Per  tierce. 

>» 

32  to  36 

20  tO  25 

— 

Per  barrel. 

Dried  beef 

32  to  36 

35i 

— 



Fresh  meat 

38 

— 

Per  pound. 

» 

38 

25* 

— 

Per  quarter. 

Veal     .. 

36 

25 

— 

Per  pound. 

Lamb  .  . 

36 

— 

^ 

Game  .  . 

32  to  36 

— 

15  cents 

H 

»       •  • 

Below  20 

i  » 

— 

Per  Ib.  gross. 

Venison  and 

poultry 

Below  20 

I* 

— 

,, 

Ducks,  grouse, 

and  quail 

32  to  35 

— 

15     „ 

Per  dozen. 

Quails 

Below  20 

— 

pf 

Fish 

25  to  30 

i  to  4- 



Storage  Room 

25  dollars 



Per  1,000 

and  upwards 

cubic  feet. 

92 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


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COLD   STORAGE. 


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94  REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


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96  REFRIGERATION   AND   ICE-MAKING. 

RATES    FOR   FREEZING   POULTRY,    GAME,    FISH,    MEATS, 
BUTTER,  EGGS,  ETC.,  UNITED  STATES. 

The  rates  for  freezing  goods,  or  for  storing  goods  at  a 
freezing  temperature  when  they  are  already  frozen,  are  as 
follows : — 

POULTRY,  GAME,  ETC.,  IN  UNBROKEN  PACKAGES. 

Poultry,  including  turkeys,  fowl,  chickens,  geese,  etc., 
and  rabbits,  squirrels,  and  ducks  when  picked. 

Four  rates,  A,  B,  C,  and  D,  for  storing  poultry,  and  the 
rate  to  be  charged  will  be  determined  by  the  amount  of 
such  goods  as  may  be  frozen  and  stored  during  a  season 
of  six  months,  usually  from  October  or  November  ist  to 
April  or  May  ist. 

RATE  A. — For  customers  storing  fifty  or  more  tons  of 
poultry,  the  rate  to  be  one-third  cent  per  pound  for  the 
first  month  stored,  and  one-fourth  cent  per  pound  for  each 
month  or  fraction  of  a  month,  including  the  first  month, 
if  stored  for  more  than  one  month. 

RATE  B. — For  customers  storing  five  or  more,  but  less 
than  fifty  tons  of  poultry,  the  rate  to  be  one-third  cent  per 
pound  for  the  first  month  stored,  and  one-fourth  cent  per 
pound  for  each  month  or  fraction  of  a  month  thereafter. 

RATE  C. — For  customers  storing  one  or  more,  but  less 
than  five  tons  of  poultry,  the  rate  to  be  three-eighths  cent 
per  pound  for  the  first  month  stored,  and  one-fourth  cent 
per  pound  for  each  month  or  fraction  of  a  month  there- 
after. 

RATE  D. — For  customers  storing  less  than  one  ton  of 
poultry,  the  rate  to  be  one-half  cent  per  pound  for  the  first 
month  stored,  and  three-eighths  cent  per  pound  for  each 
month  or  fraction  of  a  month  thereafter. 

Venison,  etc.,  and  ducks  when  unpicked,  one  to  one-half 
cent  per  pound  per  month,  according  to  quality  and  length 
of  time  stored. 

Grouse  and  partridges,  three  cents  to  five  cents  per  pair 
per  month.  Woodcock,  one  cent  to  two  cents  per  pair 
per  month. 

Squabs  and  pigeons,  four  cents  to  six  cents  per  dozen 


COLD   STORAGE.  97 

per  month.  Quail,  plover,  snipe,  etc.,  three  cents  to  five 
cents  per  dozen  per  month. 

When  a  portion  of  the  goods  is  removed  from  a  package, 
storage  to  be  charged  for  the  whole  package  as  it  was 
received,  until  the  balance  of  the  package  is  removed  from 
the  freezer. 

For  goods  received  loose,  when  to  be  taken  out  of  the 
packages  in  which  they  are  received,  or  when  to  be  laid 
out,  the  following  rates  to  be  charged  : — 

Poultry,  including  turkeys,  chickens,  geese,  etc.,  and 
rabbits  and  squirrels,  one-half  cent  to  one-fourth  cent  per 
pound  extra,  according  to  quality  and  length  of  time 
stored. 

Grouse,  partridges,  woodcock,  squabs,  pigeons,  quail, 
plover,  and  snipe,  50  per  cent,  more  than  the  rates  as 
above  specified. 

Ducks  weighing  less  than  two  pounds  each,  two  cents  to 
three  cents  each  per  month.  Ducks  weighing  two  pounds 
or  more  each,  three  cents  to  four  cents  each  per  month. 

For  all  kinds  of  poultry  and  birds  not  herein  specified, 
the  rate  from  one  cent  to  one-half  cent  per  pound  per 
month,  according  to  quantity  and  length  of  time  stored. 

SUMMER  FREEZING  RATES. 

Freezing  rates  for  the  summer  months,  50  per  cent,  more 
than  the  specified  winter  rates  for  the  first  month  stored, 
and  the  same  as  the  winter  rates  for  the  second  and  succeed- 
ing months. 

STORING  UNFROZEN  POULTRY,  ETC. 

For  holding  poultry,  game,  etc.,  which  are  not  frozen,  at 
a  temperature  which  shall  be  about  30°  Fahr.,  the  rate  to 
be  one-fifth  cent  to  two-fifths  cent  per  pound  according  to 
quantity,  for  any  time  not  exceeding  two  weeks. 

FREEZING  RATES  FOR  FISH  AND  MEATS. 

Salmon,  blue  fish,  and  other  fresh  fish  in  packages,  one- 
half  cent  per  pound  for  the  first  month  stored,  three- 
eighths  cent  per  pound  per  month  thereafter. 


98  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 

Fresh  fish  of  all  kinds  when  to  be  hung  up  or  laid  out, 
three-fourths  cent  per  pound  for  the  first  month  stored, 
one-half  cent  per  pound  per  month  thereafter. 

Fish  in  small  quantities,  50  per  cent,  more  than  the 
above  rates. 

Special  rates  for  large  lots  of  large  fish. 

Scallops,  three-fourths  cent  per  pound,  gross,  per  month. 

Sweetbreads,  and  lamb  fries,  one  cent  per  pound,  gross, 
per  month. 

Beef,  mutton,  lamb,  pork,  veal,  tongues,  etc.,  three- 
fourths  cent  to  one-half  cent  per  pound,  net,  for  the  first 
month  stored,  one-fourth  cent  to  three-eighths  cent  per 
pound  per  month  thereafter. 

BUTTER  FREEZING  RATES. 

For  freezing  and  storing  butter  in  a  temperature  of  20° 
Fahr.  or  lower,  the  rate  to  be  charged  will  be  determined 
by  the  amount  of  such  goods  that  may  be  frozen  and 
stored  during  the  season  of  eight  months  from  April  ist 
to  December  ist,  or  from  May  ist  to  January  ist.  There 
will  be  three  rates,  A,  B,  and  C. 

RATE  A. — For  customers  storing  thirty-five  (35)  or  more 
tons  of  butter,  the  rate  to  be  fifteen  cents  per  100  pounds, 
net,  per  month. 

RATE  B. — For  customers  storing  five  or  more,  but  less 
than  thirty-five  tons  of  butter,  the  rate  to  be  eighteen  cents 
per  100  pounds,  net,  per  month. 

RATE  C. — For  customers  storing  less  than  five  tons  of 
butter,  the  rate  to  be  twenty-five  cents  per  100  pounds, 
net,  per  month* 

EGG  FREEZING  RATES,  j 

For  freezing  broken  eggs  in  cans,  the  charge  to  be  one- 
half  cent  per  pound,  net  weight,  per  month,  and  for  a 
season  of  eight  months  the  rate  to  be  one  and  one-half 
cents  per  pound,  net  weight. 

RENT  OF  ROOMS. 

For  freezing  temperatures,  four  cents  to  five  cents  per 
cubic  foot  per  month. 


COLD  STORAGE.  99 

TERMS  OF  PAYMENT  OF  COLD  STORAGE  AND 
FREEZING  RATES. 

All  the  above  rates  are  to  be  charged  for  each  month, 
or  fraction  of  a  month,  unless  otherwise  specified ;  and  in 
all  cases  fractions  of  months  to  be  charged  as  full  months. 

Charges  to  be  computed  in  all  cases  when  possible  upon 
the  marked  weights  and  numbers  of  all  goods  at  the  time 
they  are  received. 

All  storage  bills  are  due  and  payable  upon  the  delivery 
of  a  whole  lot,  or  balance  of  a  lot  of  goods,  or  every  three 
months,  when  goods  are  stored  more  than  three  months. 

Unless  special  instructions  regarding  insurance  accom- 
pany each  lot  of  goods,  they  are  held  at  owner's  risk. 

COLD  STORAGE   CHARGES  (France). 

Public  Abattoir j  Chambery. 

Rent  of  cold  storage  chamber  500  francs  (£20)  per 
annum.  An  ordinary  cold  storage  chamber  contains  17  or 
1 8  hooks,  each  capable  of  supporting  about  100  kilo- 
grammes (220*4  Ibs.)  of  meat,  and  17  or  18  S-hooks,  each 
capable  of  receiving  10  kilogrammes  (22*04  Ibs.),  in  small 
pieces.  The  weights  of  the  meat  suspended  from  the 
hooks  and  S-hooks  are  never  to  exceed  the  above.  In  all 
cases  where  such  weights  are  exceeded  the  butchers  will  be 
held  responsible  for  any  damage  and  breakages  which  may 
result. 

Where  a  cold  storage  chamber  is  let  to  a  number  of 
persons,  the  rent  to  be  per  hook,  at  the  rate  of  40  francs 
(32  shillings)  a  year,  that  is  to  say,  for  the  time  during 
which  the  cold  store  is  in  operation.  The  S-hook  situated 
above  is  included  with  each  hook. 


SECTION   III. 
ICE-MAKING  AND   STORING   ICE. 

ICE-MAKING. 

ARTIFICIAL  ice  is  either  what  is  known  as  clear,  trans- 
parent, or  crystal  ice,  or  milky,  opaque,  or  tombstone  ice. 
The  latter  is  generally  used  where  appearance  is  of  no 
consequence,  and  cheapness  is  the  main  consideration, 
and  it  does  not  necessarily  possess  any  unwholesome 
qualities,  but  it  has  the  objection  of  very  considerably 
reduced  keeping  powers,  and  should  be  used  immediately. 
The  opacity  of  ice  is  mainly  due  to  rapid  freezing  pre- 
venting the  air  contained  in  solution  in  the  water  from 
escaping. 

Clear  or  crystal  ice  can  be  made  by  using  distilled  or 
de-aerated  water,  or  by  agitation  of  the  water  during  the 
freezing  process.  This  latter  has  been  carried  out  in  a 
number  of  different  ways,  of  which  the  most  common  and 
practical  is  the  reciprocating  movement  of  agitators  or 
paddles  in  the  ice  can  or  mould,  or  in  the  ice-box,  accord- 
ingly as  the  can  system  or  the  stationary  cell  system  is  in 
use.  Many  other  devices  have,  however,  been  used,  amongst 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  imparting  of  a  rotary  motion 
to  the  freezer,  rods  or  plungers  moving  up  and  down  in 
cans,  oscillating  rods  or  agitators,  forcing  cold  air  through 
the  freezing  water,  shaking  cans  or  moulds,  removing  water 
and  refilling  it  by  pumping,  water  injection  with  pressure 
reduction,  taking  water  from  one  point  of  one  can  and 
pumping  it  into  another,  rotating  stirrer  or  agitator,  freezing 
ice  in  very  cold  air,  freezing  ice  very  slowly,  freezing  ice 
in  very  thin  slabs. 

A  white  core  in  ice  is  due  to  the  presence  of  carbonite  of 
lime  and  magnesia  or  other  minerals  in  the  water.  A  red 
core  in  ice  is  due  to  the  separation  of  oxide  of  iron  in  ice 
which  was  maintained  in  solution  in  the  water  in  the  form 
of  carbonate  of  iron,  and  the  sediment  usually  comes  from 


ICE-MAKING  AND  STORING  ICE. 


IOI 


the  iron  of  the  plant.  Pure  distilled,  carefully  filtered  water 
should  be  alone  used  for  making  ice  intended  for  domestic 
consumption.  The  three  most  used  types  of  ice-making 
apparatus  are  those  working  on  the  can  system,  the  station- 
ary cell  system,  and  the  plate  or  wall  system. 

In  ice-making,  where  it  is  important  to  secure  the  maxi- 
mum production  at  the  minimum  cost,  it  is  necessary  to 
work  both  day  and  night  so  as  to  render  the  operation  a 
continuous  one.  Likewise  such  routine  must  be  followed 
as  will  ensure  the  largest  possible  output  and  the  best 
quality.  With  this  purpose  in  view,  great  care  must  be 
exercised  to  maintain  all  the  parts  of  the  apparatus  per- 
fectly clean,  and  in  first-class  working  order.  A  regular 
and  systematic  plan  of  drawing  the  ice  must  be  settled 
upon  and  strictly  adhered  to,  and  with  this  object  a  dis- 
tinctive number  or  letter  should  be  stamped  or  painted 
upon  each  can  or  mould,  and  so  many  drawn  regularly 
per  hour. 

TABLE  GIVING  SIZES  AND  CAPACITIES  OF  ICE-MAKING 
PLANTS,  ETC. 

(H.  H.  Kelley,  »  The  Engineer,"  New  York.} 


Tons  *per 
24  Hours. 

Size  of 
Engine. 

i 

Pd 

Size  of 
Com- 
pressor. 

Size  of 
Blocks 
of  Ice. 

Gallons 
of  Water 
per  Hour. 

"S,. 

No.  of 
Engineers. 

No.  of 
Firemen. 

1  No.  of 
1  Labourers.  | 

I 

7x    9 

90 

+5*  10 

8  x    8  x  28 

5 

i 

I 

.  , 

3 

8x  16 

80 

8  x  15x28 

15 

i 

2 

2 

2 

5 

lox  20 

75 

6x  18 

8  x  15x28 

20 

*i 

2 

2 

2 

f 

II  X  22  X  28 

\ 

10 

12x30 

70 

8x20  1 

II  X  II  X  28 

j  3° 

2 

2 

2 

3 

10} 

14x30 

65 

8x25{ 

II  X  22  X  28 
II  X  II  X  28 

J35 

*i 

2 

2 

3 

15 

14x30 

65 

10  X  20  { 

II  X  22  X  28 
II  X  II  X  28 

}4o 

3 

2 

2 

4 

20 

16  x  30 

55 

10  x  30  J 

II  X  22  X  28 
II  X  II  X  28 

j  50 

4 

2 

2 

5 

30 

16x42. 

52 

iix3o{ 

II  X  22  X  28 
II  X  II  X  28 

J6o 

5 

2 

2 

6 

40 

18x36 

5° 

12  X  3O 

II  X  II  X28 

90 

6J 

2 

2 

7 

20  X  36 

50 

15x30 

II  X  II  X  28 

94 

8 

2 

2 

8 

60 

24  x  36 

45 

1  6  x  36 

II  X  II  X28 

96 

10 

2 

2 

9 

80 

26x48 

45 

20x36 

II  X  22  X  28 

100 

13 

2 

2 

10 

*  2,000  pounds. 


J  One  cylinder. 


1 02 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE- MAKING. 


DIMENSIONS  OF  ICE-MAKING  TANKS. 

Table  compiled  by  E.  T.  Skinkle,  giving  sizes  of  some  Freezing  Tanks,  Piping  and  Moulds,  in  actual  operation. 
(From  "  Compend.  of  Mechanical  Refrigeration") 

,„ 

1 

^           #      *           * 

Average  of  i-in.  pipe  per  ton,  327  feet.  Average  of  i^-in.  pipe  per  ton,  272  feet.  • 
*  Twenty-ton  tanks  are  duplicate  lo-ton  tanks  ^ 
Thirty-ton  „  „  „  15  „  „  v  Dimensions  of  one  tank  only  are  given  in  each  instance. 
Sixty-ton  „  „  „  30  „  „  ) 

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ICE-MAKING  AND  STORING  ICE.  IO3 

PURE  WATER. 

If  properly  distilled  water,  or  ice  made  from  such  water, 
be  evaporated  slowly  on  a  piece  of  platinum  foil  over  a 
spirit-lamp  or  a  Bunsen  gas-burner,  there  should  be  no 
residuum  whatever. 

In  the  manufacture  of  ice  intended  for  domestic  con- 
sumption, the  use  of  pure  water  is  a  matter  of  paramount 
importance,  consequently  it  is  well  to  define  what  pure 
water  is,  and  as  very  much  the  same  requirements  that  are 
made  by  authorities  with  respect  to  potable  water,  also 
apply  to  ice,  we  will  give  some  of  the  demands  made  in 
the  former  case.  Pure  water  is  soft,  is  transparent,  has  a 
certain  amount  of  sparkle,  is  sufficiently  aerated,  has  no 
matter  held  in  suspension  that  is  visible,  is  completely 
tasteless,  and  is  either  entirely  colourless  or  has  a  slight 
bluish  tint.  The  requirements  of  some  authorities  in  the 
United  States  in  this  direction — great  care  being  there 
exercised — are  given  by  Prof.  Siebel  as  follows :  "  i.  Such 
water  should  be  clear,  temperature  not  above  15°  C. 
2.  It  should  contain  some  air.  3.  It  should  contain  in 
1,000,000  parts:  Not  more  than  20  parts  of  organic  matter. 
Not  more  than  0*1  part  of  albuminoid  ammonias.  Not 
more  than  o'5  part  of  free  ammonia.  4.  It  should  contain 
no  nitrates,  no  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  only  traces  of 
iron,  aluminium,  and  magnesium.  Besides  the  mentioned 
substances,  it  should  not  contain  anything  that  is  precipit- 
able  by  sulphuretted  ammonia.  5.  It  must  not  contract 
any  odour  in  closed  vessels.  6.  It  must  contain  no  sapro- 
phites  and  leptothrix,  and  no  bacteria  and  infusoria  in 
notable  quantities.  7.  Addition  of  sugar  must  cause  no 
development  of  fungoid  growth.  8.  On  gelatine  it  must 
not  generate  any  liquefying  colonies  of  bacteria." 

SIMPLE  RULES  FOR  ASCERTAINING  THE  QUALITY  OF  SO- 
CALLED  MINERAL  WATER. — {Frick  Company!) 

Water  turning  blue  litmus  paper  red.jbefore  boiling, 
which  after  boiling  will  not  do  so ;  and  if  the  blue  colour 
can  be  restored  by  warming,  then  it  is  carbonated  (con- 
taining carbonic  acid). 

If  it  has  a  sickening  odour,  giving  a  black  precipitate 


104  REFRIGERATION   AND   ICE-MAKING. 

with  acetate  of  lead,  it  is  sulphurous  (containing  sulphuretted 
hydrogen). 

If  it  gives  a  blue  precipitate  with  yellow  or  red  prussiate 
of  potash  by  adding  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  or  muriatic 
acid,  it  is  chalybeate  (carbonate  of  iron). 

If  it  restores  blue  colour  to  litmus  paper  after  boiling,  it 
is  alkaline. 

If  it  has  none  of  the  above  properties  in  a  marked  degree 
and  leaves  a  large  residue  after  boiling,  it  is  a  saline  water 
(containing  salts). 

TESTING  BY  REAGENTS. 

If  water  becomes  turbid  or  opaque  by  using  the  following 
reagents,  it  is  not  pure : — 

With  baryta  water,  indicating  carbonic  acid. 

With  chloride  of  barium,  indicates  sulphate. 

With  nitrate  of  silver,  indicates  chloride. 

With  oxalate  of  ammonia,  indicates  lime  salts. 

With  sulphide  of  hydrogen,  slightly  acid,  indicates  presence 
of  antimony,  arsenic,  tin,  copper,  gold,  platinum,  mercury, 
silver,  lead,  bismuth,  and  cadmium. 

With  sulphide  of  ammonia,  alkaloid  by  ammonia,  indi- 
cates nickel,  cobalt,  manganese,  iron,  zinc,  alumina,  and 
chromium. 

With  chloride  of  mercury  or  gold  and  sulphate  of  zinc, 
indicates  organic  matter. 

FREEZING  TANK  OR  Box. 

These  are  constructed  of  sheet  iron  and  steel,  and  also 
of  wood  and  cement.  The  amount  of  pipe  required  is 
about  250  feet  of  2-inch  pipe,  or  350  feet  of  i-j-inch  pipe, 
or  their  equivalent  per  ton  of  ice  per  twenty-four  hours,  in 
accordance  with  the  temperature  of  the  brine  and  the 
capacity  of  the  machine.  Less  pipe  than  the  above,  says 
Prof.  Siebel,  is  employed  in  the  United  States,  even  as 
low  as  150  feet  of  2-inch  pipe,  and  200  feet  of  i^-inch  pipe 
per  ton  of  ice-making  capacity  (in  twenty-four  hours),  but 
in  that  case  the  back  pressure  must  be  carried  excessively 
low,  which  duly  increases  the  consumption  of  coal  and  the 
wear  and  tear  of  the  machinery. 

The  brine  in  the  freezing  tank  may  be  cooled  on  either 
the  brine  circulation  or  the  direct  expansion  system. 


ICE-MAKING  AND  STORING  ICE.  105 

The  size  and  length  of  pipe  in  the  brine  tank,  it  is 
recommended  by  the  above-mentioned  authority,  should 
be  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  each  row  of  moulds 
or  cans  is  passed  by  an  ammonia  pipe  on  each  side, 
preferably  on  the  wide  side  of  the  mould  or  can.  The 
series  of  pipes  in  the  ice  tank  or  box  are  connected  by 
a  manifold,  the  liquid  ammonia  entering  the  manifold  at 
the  lower  extremity,  and  the  vapour  leaving  by  the  suction 
manifold  placed  at  the  higher  extremity  of  the  refrigerating 
coils. 

When  working  with  the  wet  vapour  of  ammonia,  the  liquid 
must  be  admitted  at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  refrigerating 
coils,  and  be  drawn  off  to  the  compressor  at  their  lower 
extremity. 

BRINE  FOR  USE  IN  REFRIGERATING  AND  ICE-MAKING 
PLANTS. 

A  brine  suitable  for  the  above  purpose  can  be  made 
with  from  3  to  5  Ibs.  of  chloride  of  calcium,  or  muriate  of 
lime,  in  accordance  with  its  degree  of  purity,  dissolved  in 
each  gallon  of  water.  The  density  of  this  solution  is  about 
23°  Beaume',  its  weight  about  13%  Ibs.  per  gallon,  and  the 
freezing-point  is  —9°  Fahr.  As  the  above  standard  of 
density  must  be  kept  up,  in  order  to  prevent  the  brine 
from  becoming  congealed  in  the  refrigerator,  or  the  ice- 
making  tanks  or  boxes,  it  is  desirable  to  test  it  periodically 
with  a  salinometer. 

In  the  best  American  practice  first  quality  medium 
ground  salt,  preferably  in  bags  for  convenience  of  handling, 
is  employed,  the  proportions  being  about  3  Ibs.  of  salt 
to  each  gallon  of  water.  The  brine  is  made  in  a  brine 
mixer,  consisting  of  a  water-tight  box  or  tank  about 
4  ft.  X  8  ft.  x  2  ft.,  having  a  suitably  perforated  false 
bottom,  and  a  small  compartment,  partitioned  off  at  one 
extremity,  communicating  with  the  main  compartment 
through  an  overflow  situated  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
partition,  and  fitted  with  a  large  strainer,  to  prevent  the 
passage  into  the  small  compartment  of  salt  or  foreign 
bodies.  The  water  is  admitted  through  a  perforated  pipe 
situated  beneath,  and  running  the  full  length  of  the  false 
bottom,  and  the  brine  is  removed  through  a  pipe  from  the 


io6 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


upper  part  of  the  end  compartment,  at  the  lower  extremity 
of  which  latter  pipe  is  a  strainer-box  and  strainer  through 
which  the  brine  passes  before  delivery  into  the  brine-tank. 
A  salt  gauge,  salinometer,  or  hydrometer  is  also  placed  in 
the  small  or  end  compartment. 

The  salt  should  be  dissolved  in  the  water  until  it  reaches 
a  density  of  about  90°  by  the  hydrometer.  To  facilitate 
dissolution  it  is  desirable  to  stir  the  salt  in  the  mixer  with 
some  handy  implement,  the  salt  being  shovelled  in  as  fast 
as  it  can  be  got  to  dissolve. 

By  the  use  of  this  mixture  the  settlement  of  salt  on  the 
bottom,  and  on  the  coils  in  the  brine  tank,  which  inevitably 
results  when  the  dissolution  is  effected  directly  in  the  latter, 
is  avoided. 

To  maintain  the  strength  of  the  brine  it  is  recommended 
to  suspend  bags  filled  with  the  salt  in  the  brine  tank,  or  to 
pass  the  return  brine  through  the  above-described  brine 
maker  or  mixer. 

A  cheap  and  easily  constructed  apparatus  for  mixing 
brine  can  be  made  out  of  an  old  barrel  in  which  a  perforated 
false  bottom  is  fixed  a  short  distance  above  the  bottom,  the 
water  to  form  the  solution  being  delivered  to  the  space 
between  the  two  bottoms,  and  an  overflow  pipe  fitted  with 
a  suitable  strainer  and  a  well  to  receive  a  salinometer  being 
provided  near  the  top  to  draw  off  the  brine. 

SOLUTIONS  OF  CHLORIDE  OF  CALCIUM  (CaCh). 

(Manufacturer  of  Chloride  of  Calcium,  U.S.) 


Specific 
Gravity  at 
64°  Fahr. 

Degree 
Beaume 
at  64° 
Fahr. 

Degree 
balino- 
meter  at 
64°  Fahr 

Per  cent,  of 
Chloride  of 
Calcium. 

Freezing- 
point 
Degrees 
Fahr. 

Ammonia  Gauge. 
Lbs.  per  square  inch 
at  Freezing-point. 

•007 

I 

4 

0-943 

+31-20 

46 

•014 

2 

8 

1-886 

+30-40 

45 

•021 

3 

12 

2-829 

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44 

•028 

4 

16 

3772 

-28-80 

43 

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20 

4715 

-28-00 

42 

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6 

24 

5-658 

-26-89 

4i 

•050 

7 

28 

6-601 

- 

-25-78 

40 

•058 

8 

32 

7'544 

+24-67 

38 

•065 

9 

34 

8-487 

+23-56 

37 

1-073 

10 

40 

9-430 

-j-22-09 

35-5 

ICE-MAKING  AND  STORING  ICE. 


107 


SOLUTIONS  OF  CHLORIDE  OF  CALCIUM  (CaCte). 

(Manufacturer  of  Chloride  of  Calcium,  U.S.} 


'Specific 
Giavity  at 
64°  Fahr. 

Degree 
Beaume 
at  64° 
Fahr. 

Degree 
Salino- 
meter  at 
64°  Fahr. 

Per  cent,  of 
Chloride  of 
Calcium. 

Freezing- 
point 
Degrees 
Fahr. 

Ammonia  Gauge, 
Lbs.  per  square  inch 
at  Freezing-point. 

I-oSl 

II 

44 

10-373 

-j-20-62 

34 

1-089 

12 

48 

11-316 

-f-19'14 

32-5 

•097 

13 

52 

12-259 

+  17-67 

30-5 

•105 

H 

56 

13-202 

+15-75 

29 

•114 

15 

60 

H'MS 

+  13-82 

27 

•112 

16 

64 

15-088 

+II-89 

25 

•131 

17 

68 

16-031 

+  9-96 

23-5 

•140 

18 

72 

16-974 

+  7-68 

21-5 

•149 

19 

76 

17-917 

+  5-40 

20 

•158 

20 

80 

18-860 

+  3-12 

18 

•167 

21 

84 

19-803 

-  0-84 

15 

•I76 

22 

88 

20-746 

-  4-44 

12-5 

•186 

23 

92 

21-689 

-  8-03 

10-5 

•196 

24 

96 

22-632 

-11-63 

8 

•205 

25 

100 

23-575 

-15-23 

6 

•215 

26 

104 

24-518 

-19-56 

4 

•225 

27 

108 

25-461 

-24-43 

i-5 

•236 

28 

112 

26-404 

-29-29 

1  66  vacuum 

•246 

29 

116 

27-347 

-35-30 

566 

•257 

30 

120 

28-290 

-41-32 

8-566 

•268 

31 

— 

29-233 

-47-66 

I266 

•279 

32 

— 

30-176 

-54-00 

i566 

•290 

33 

— 

31-119 

-44-32 

I066 

1-302 

34 

— 

32-062 

-34-66 

465 

I-3I3 

35 

~* 

33-000 

—25-00 

1-5  Ibs. 

PROPERTIES  OF  SOLUTION  OF  CHLORIDE  OF  CALCIUM. 

(Prof,  Siebel,  "  Compend.  of  Mechanical  Refrigeration.'"'} 


Percentage 
by  Weight. 

Specific 
Heat. 

Specific 
Gravity  at 
60°  Fahr. 

Freezing- 
point 
Degrees  Fahr. 

Freezing- 
point 
Degrees  Cels. 

I 

0-996 

•009 

31 

-0-5 

5 

0-964 

•043 

.27-5 

—  2*5 

10 

0-896 

•087 

22 

-5-6 

15 

0-860 

•134 

15 

-9-6 

20 

0-834 

•182 

5 

-14-8 

25 

0-790 

•234 

-8 

—  22-1 

io8 


REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


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ICE-MAKING  AND  STORING  ICE.  IOQ 

COMPARISON  OF  VARIOUS  HYDROMETER  SCALES. — (Yaryan.) 


™.:f.c 

Gravies. 

6 

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21-9 
24-8 

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12-6 

14-3 
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10 
ii 

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1-0745 
1-0825 

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27-5 
30-3 

11-7 
12-9 

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19-8 

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12 

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1-0905 

9-0 

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33-0 

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9-8 

19-6 

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164 

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18-8 

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17 

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13-3 

26-6 

46-5 

20-0 

30-7 

11-7 

18 

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14-2 

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21*2 

32-6 

12-4 

20 

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23 
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20-8 

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68-9 

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41-0 

64-7 

24-1 

110 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


COMPARISON  OF  VARIOUS  HYDROMETER  SCALES. — (Continued.) 


Specific  Gravities. 

u 

1 

1    ' 

u 

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to. 

£ 

p^x. 

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101-9 

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52-8 
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ICE-MAKING  AND  STORING  ICE. 


Ill 


FREEZING    TIMES    FOR   DIFFERENT    TEMPERATURES  AND 
THICKNESSES  OF  CAN  ICE. 

(Siebert.) 


C 

c 

G 

c 

a 

a 

c 

a 

a 

c 

a 

g 

H 

N 

10 

* 

10 

VO 

** 

oo 

o> 

0 

H 
H 

H 

H 

Temperature  10° 

0*32 

!*28 

2*86 

S'xo 

8'oo 

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20*4 

25-8 

3i'8 

38*s 

45-8 

12° 

I-40 

3'i5 

5*60 

8*75 

12-6 

i7'3 

22*4 

28*4 

42*3 

50*4 

14° 

3*5° 

b'22 

Q'70 

14-0 

iq-o 

25-0 

39'° 

47-0 

56-0 

16° 

18° 

20° 
22° 
24° 

0-44 
0-50 

o'70 
0-88 

i'75 

2'00 

2-32 
2-80 
3'5o 

3  '94 
4]50 

6-30 
7*86 

7-00 
8'oo 

11*2 
14*0 

II'O 

12*5 

14-6 

17*5 

2I'O 

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i8'o 

21*0 

25-2 
31*5 

21-5 
24'5 

28-5 
3  4'  3 
42-8 

28*0 
32-0 

37'3 
44-8 
56*0 

35'5 
4°'5 
47-2 
567 
71*0 

43*7 

&1 

I?, 

106*0 

72*0 
84-0 

lOO'O 

126-0 

TIME  REQUIRED  FOR  WATER  TO  FREEZE  IN  ICE  CANS. 

(The  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Company,  Catalogue.} 

Cans,  size,  6  in.  by  12  in.  by  24  in.    Weight  of  cake,  5olbs.  Time  to 

freeze,  20  hours. 
Cans,  size,  8  in.  by  1 8  in.  by  32  in.    Weight  of  cake,  100  Ibs.     Time  to 

freeze,  36  hours. 
Cans,  size,  8  in.  by  16  in.  by  40  in.   Weight  of  cake,  150  Ibs.    Time  to 

freeze,  36  hours. 
Cans,  size,  n  in.  by  22  in.  by  32  in.   Weight  of  cake,  200  Ibs.   Time  to 

freeze,  55  hours. 
Cans,  size,  1 1  in.  by  22  in.  by  44  in.     Weight  of  cake,  300  Ibs.     Time  to 

freeze,  60  hours. 
Cans,  size,  II  in.  by  22  in.  by  57  in.     Weight  of  cake,  400  Ibs.   Time  to 

freeze,  60  hours. 

NOTE. — Temperature  of  bath  14  to  18  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Asa  rule, 
the  higher  the  bath  temperature  the  slower  the  process  of 
freezing,  but  the  finer  and  clearer  the  ice. 

STORING  ICE. 

For  storing  purposes  ice  should  be  clear,  solid,  and 
devoid  of  core.  In  America  some  persons  insist  that  ice 
for  storage  should  not  be  made  at  temperatures  higher 
than  10°  to  14°  in  brine  tank. 

The  first  requisite  for  a  storage  house  for  artificial  ice, 
as  also  for  natural  ice,  is  of  course  the  best  possible 
insulation;  other  necessary  points  to  be  attended  to  are 
drainage  and  ventilation.  The  best  shape  for  an  ice 
storage  house  is  squargg^oras  nearly  approaching  this  form 


112  REFRIGERATION    AND   ICE-MAKING. 

as  possible,  and  the  roof  should  have  a  good  pitch.  An 
ante-room  or  lobby  is  also  desirable,  as  by  the  provision 
of  this  latter  the  necessity  for  the  frequent  opening  of  the 
main  store  is  done  away  with. 

To  preserve  the  ice,  the  storage  rooms  as  well  as  the 
ante-chambers  or  lobbies  must  be  refrigerated,  and  the 
amount  of  the  latter  required  may  be  roughly  estimated, 
according  to  Prof.  Siebel,  at  from  about  ten  to  sixteen 
British  thermal  units  of  refrigeration  per  cubic  feet  con- 
tents for  twenty-four  hours.  About  one  foot  of  2-inch 
pipe  (or  its  equivalent  in  other  size  pipe)  per  fourteen  to 
twenty  cubic  feet  of  space  is  frequently  allowed,  says  the 
same  gentleman,  in  ice  storage  houses  for  direct  expansion, 
and  about  one-half  to  one-third  more  for  brine  circulation. 
The  pipes  should  be  located  on  the  ceiling  of  the  ice 
storage  house. 

The  ventilation  of  an  ice  storage  house  should  be  carefully 
attended  to,  and  ventilators  fitted  with  suitable  regulators 
should  be  provided  both  in  the  highest  part  of  the  roof  and 
also  in  the  gable  ends.  The  drainage  should  be  such  as  to 
absolutely  prevent  the  accumulation  of  any  moisture  beneath 
the  bed  of  ice.  It  is  recommended  to  paint  an  ice  store 
white,  preferably  with  a  mineral  paint  such  as  barytes,  or 
patent  white. 

Respecting  the  best  method  to  adopt  for  packing  the  ice 
in  the  store,  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  seems  to 
exist.  It  is  well  to  provide  a  bed  of  from  eighteen  inches 
to  two  feet  of  cinders,  as  this  tends  to  improve  the  drainage 
of  the  house.  In  one  method  the  blocks  are  placed  on 
edge  and  as  closely  packed  together  as  possible,  the  blocks 
in  each  succeeding  layer  being  placed  exactly  over  those 
beneath  and  all  breaking  of  joints  being  avoided.  The  ice 
is  covered  between  the  times  of  storing  with  dry  sawdust  or 
soft  wood  shavings,  and  the  uppermost  layer  is  invariablv 
covered  with  dry  sawdust  or  shavings. 

Mr.  R.  Thompson,  writing  to  the  Canadian  Farming 
World,  says  that  in  filling  the  house  he  puts  the  ice  on 
edge,  placing  every  alternate  layer  crossways,  which  plan, 
he  claims,  enables  ice  to  keep  better  and  come  out  easier. 

Others  recommend  that  the  ice  be  stored  with  alternate 
ends  touching,  and  alternately  from  one  and  a  half  to  two 


ICE-MAKING  AND  STORING  ICE.  113 

inches  apart,  so  as  to  prevent  the  ice  from  freezing  together. 
The  cakes  or  slabs  of  ice  should  not  be  parallel  to  each 
other,  and  storage  should  only  be  made  when  the  tempera- 
ture is  at  or  below  freezing.  Or,  again,  —inch  strips  placed 
between  the  layers  of  ice  in  the  store  so  as  to  separate  the 
cakes  or  blocks  top,  side,  and  bottom,  from  all  others  in 
the  house. 

For  packing  the  ice,  sawdust,  rice  chaff,  straw,  hay — 
marsh  or  prairie  hay  being  said  to  be  preferable — are  em- 
ployed, the  latter  materials  being  the  best,  and  rice  chaff 
being  capable  of  being  dried  and  re-used.  Six  inches  of 
well-packed  hay  should  be  placed  between  the  ice  and  the 
walls,  and  no  covering  until  the  store  is  full. 

A  cubic  foot  of  ice  is  taken  to  weigh  57-5  Ibs.  approxi- 
mately at  32°  Fahr.  A  cubic  foot  of  water  frozen  at  32° 
will  make  1*0855  cubic  foot  of  ice,  thus  showing  an  expan- 
sion of  8*5  per  cent,  due  to  freezing.  A  cubic  foot  of  pure 
water  at  39°  Fahr.,  its  point  of  greatest  density,  weighs 
62*43  Ibs.  Fifty  cubic  feet  of  ice,  as  usually  stored,  equals 
about  one  American  or  short  ton  of  ice  (2000  Ibs.),  or  62 
cubic  feet  one  English  ton.  In  small  ice  houses,  in  which 
the  ice  is  closely  packed,  a  short  ton  of  ice  can  be  got  into 
from  40  to  45  cubic  feet. 

When  withdrawing  ice  from  a  store,  breaking  out  bars 
for  bottom  and  side  breaking  are  required,  and  if  properly 
skilled  assistance  is  not  available  a  considerable  amount 
of  the  ice  will  in  all  probability  be  broken  up  and  wasted. 

The  wastage  of  ice  in  an  ice  store  not  artificially  cooled 
from  January  to  July  is,  in  the  United  States,  at  the  rate  of 
about  o-i  Ib.  of  ice  per  twenty-four  hours  for  each  square 
foot  of  wall  surface,  or  say  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  ice 
stored  during  the  six  months. 

The  amount  of  heat  that  will  pass  through  a  square  foot 
of  ice  one  inch  in  thickness  is  put  at  10  British  thermal 
units  per  hour  for  each  degree  Fahrenheit  difference 
between  the  respective  temperatures  on  each  side  of  the 
sheet  of  ice. 

In  handling  and  selling  ice,  the  waggons  should  be  clean 
and  sanitary,  the  men  in  charge  should  avoid  walking  about 
in  them  with  dirty  boots,  and  blocks  of  ice  should  not  be 
deposited  and  slid  about  on  filthy  pavements.  These 


114  REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 

matters  are  attended  to  in  the  United  States,  but  here  they 
are  totally  neglected. 

In  the  United  States  the  selling  and  delivery  of  ice  is 
generally  done  by  the  coupon  system,  which  is  thus  described 
by  Prof.  Siebel :  "  It  is  a  system  of  keeping  an  accurate 
account  with  each  customer  of  the  delivery  of  and  the  pay- 
ment for  ice  by  means  of  a  small  book  containing  coupons, 
which  in  the  aggregate  equal  500  or  1000  or  more  pounds 
of  ice  taken  by  the  customer  every  time  ice  is  delivered. 
These  books  are  used  in  the  delivery  of  ice  in  like  manner 
as  mileage  books  or  tickets  are  used  on  the  railroad.  A 
certain  number  of  coupons  are  printed  on  each  page,  each 
coupon  being  separated  from  the  others  by  perforation,  so 
that  they  are  easily  detached  and  taken  up  by  the  driver, 
when  ice  is  delivered.  Such  books  are  each  supplied  with 
a  receipt  or  due  bill,  so  that  if  the  customer  purchases  his 
ice  on  credit,  all  that  is  necessary  for  the  dealer  to  do  is  to 
have  the  customer  sign  the  receipt  or  due  bill  and  hand 
him  the  book  containing  coupons  equal  in  the  aggregate  to 
the  number  of  pounds  of  ice  set  forth  in  the  receipt  or  due 
bill.  The  dealer  then  has  the  receipt  or  due  bill,  and  the 
customer  has  the  book  of  coupons.  The  only  entry  which 
the  dealer  has  to  enter  against  such  purchaser  in  his  books 
is  to  charge  him  with  coupon  book  number,  as  per  number 
on  book,  to  the  amount  of  500,  1000,  or  more  pounds  of 
ice,  as  the  value  of  the  book  so  delivered  may  be.  The 
driver  then  takes  up  the  coupons  as  he  delivers  the  ice  from 
day  to  day." 


SECTION   IV 
INSULATION. 

IN  addition  to  non-conducting  qualities,  a  good  insulating 
material  should  be  non-odorous,  non-hygroscopic,  not  liable 
to  silt,  and  both  vermin  and  fire-proof. 

Perfect  insulation  would  be  attained  when  there  was 
absolutely  no  transmission  of  heat  through  the  walls  of  the 
building,  which  state  of  things  is  practically  an  impossibility. 
Every  one  should,  however,  endeavour  to  secure  as  near  an 
approximation  to  the  above  as  possible,  and  it  should  be 
remembered  that  poor  insulation  is  a  constant  drain  upon 
the  machinery  and  pocket  of  the  owner,  as  a  very  large 
percentage  of  the  actual  work  of  a  refrigerating  machine  is 
that  required  to  make  up  for  the  transfer  of  heat  through 
the  walls,  floor,  and  ceiling  of  the  cold  store,  resulting  from 
defective  insulation. 

In  the  following  tables  the  results  of  a  number  of  tests 
as  to  the  values  of  different  insulating  materials  are  given, 
and  from  these  tables  may  be  deduced  sufficient  .information 
to  enable  an  intelligent  choice  to  be  made.  In  Australia 
pumice  stone  is  much  used,  and  is  said  to  give  good  results. 
In  this  country  and  the  United  States  silicate  cotton  or 
slag- wool;  cork,  in  slabs,  bricks,  and  granulated;  and  char- 
coal are  employed,  and  there  is  something  to  be  said  in 
favour  of  each  of  these  materials. 

When  charcoal  is  employed  it  should  be  well  dried,  and 
packed  as  nearly  as  possible  to  a  consistency  of  1 1  Ibs.  per 
cubic  foot.  Silicate  cotton  or  slag-wool  is  usually  packed 
to  a  consistency  of  about  1 2  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot,  one  ton 
equalling  about  187  cubic  feet.  Some  engineers  prefer, 
however,  to  use  13  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

An  advantage  possessed  by  granulated  cork  is  its  extreme 
lightness.  One  cubic  foot  weighs  only  4-|  Ibs.,  and  one  ton 
occupies  about  450  cubic  feet. 


REFRIGERATION  AND   ICE- MAKING. 


TRANSMISSION  OF  HEAT  THROUGH  VARIOUS  INSULATING 
STRUCTURES. — (Starr,  American  Warehouse-merits  Assoc.} 

Col.  I.  gives  B.T.U.  per  square  foot  per  day  per  degree  of  difference 
of  temperature.  Col.  II.  gives  meltage  of  ice  in  pounds  per  day  by 
heat  coining  through  100  square  feet  at  a  difference  of  40°. 

Col.  I.  Col.  II. 
One  f-in.  board,  2§-in.  mineral  wool,  paper,   one  f-in. 

board 3-62       101-9 

Two  £-in.  double  boards  and  two  papers,  i-in.  hair-felt      3*318      93-4 
Two  |-in.  boards  and  paper,  i-in.  sheet  cork,  two  £-in. 

boards  and  paper       ..         ..         ..         ..         ..      3-30        92-9 

One  f-in.  board,  paper,  2-in.  calcined  pumice,  paper, 

and  ^-in.  board  ..         ..         ..          ..         ..      3-38        95-2 

One  f-in.  board,  paper,  3-in.  sheet  cork,  paper,  one 

^-in.  board       ..         ..         ..         ..         ..         ..      2'io        60*0 

Double  boards  and  papers,  4-in.  granulated  cork,  double 

boards  and  paper        ..         ..         ..         ..         ..       1-70        48-0 


RESULTS  OF  TESTS  TO  DETERMINE  THE  NON-CONDUCTIVE 
VALUES  OF  DIFFERENT  MATERIALS. 

(H.  F.  Donaldson,  M.I.C.E.,  Proceedings,  Inst.  C.E.) 

EXPERIMENT  No.  i. 


Weigh 

t  after 

Thickness 

.  . 

Loss  after 

— 

of 
Insulating 
Material. 

Weight 
of  Ice. 

Twenty- 
four 

Seventy- 
two 

Seventy- 
two 
Hours. 

Hours. 

Hours. 

Peat     (compressed 

Inches. 

Ozs. 

Ozs. 

Ozs. 

Per  cent. 

and  set  in  Fossil 

Meal)     .  . 

9 

95 

8l 

59 

37-89 

Charcoal   .. 

ii 

79£ 

56 

4**97 

Silicate  Cotton    . 

4* 

92I 

73£ 

4°l 

56-21 

Magnesia  and  As 

bestos  Fibre     . 

4* 

93 

73 

4°J 

56'45 

NOTE. — The  author  thought  it  undesirable  to  consider  further  com- 
pressed  peat  set  in  fossil  meal,  as  he  found  by  experiment  its  powers  of 
absorption  of  moisture  to  be  so  great  as  to  constitute  in  his  opinion  a 
source  of  danger. 


INSULATION. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  2. 


117 


Weight  after 

Thickness 

Original 

Loss  after 

— 

of 
Insulating 
Material. 

Weight 
Ice. 

Twenty- 
four 

Forty- 
eight 

Ninety- 
six 

Ninety- 
six 
Hours. 

Hours 

Hours. 

Hours. 

Inches. 

Ozs. 

Ozs. 

Ozs. 

Ozs. 

Percent. 

Silicate  Cotton 

6 

104 

88f 

76| 

5«i 

4375 

Sawdust 

9 

I03l 

86J 

71 

48 

52-62 

Peat 

9 

104 

77& 

56 

26£ 

74*75 

Charcoal 

9 

104 

88f 

78* 

60* 

41-82 

EXPERIMENT  No.  3. 


Weight  after 

Thickness 
of 
Insulating 
Material. 

Original 
Weight 
of 
Ice. 

Loss  after 
Seventy- 
two 
Hours. 

Twenty- 
four 

Seventy- 
two 

Hours. 

Hours. 

Silicate  Cotton     .  . 

Inches. 

9 

Ozs. 
92 

Ozs. 

83£ 

Ozs. 

7*i 

Per  cent. 
2I-I9 

Charcoal 

II 

92 

fej 

70* 

23-36 

EXPERIMENT  No.  4. 


— 

Thickness 
of 
Insulating 
Material. 

Original 
Weight 
of 
Ice. 

Weight  after 

Loss  after 
Ninety- 
six 
Hours. 

Twenty- 
four 
Hours. 

Ninety- 
six 
Hours. 

Silicate  Cotton 
(loosely  packed) 
Silicate  Cotton     .  . 
Charcoal 
Vegetable  Silica  .  . 
Diatomite 

Inches. 

9 
9 
II 
II 
II 

Ozs. 

1  10 
1  10 

no 

110 
110 

Ozs. 

I03 
lOlf 
I00| 
I0l£ 

99 

Ozs. 

84i 

& 

731 

Per  cent. 

23-41 
26-59 
28-18 
30-22 
32-95 

REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


RESULTS  OF  TESTS  TO  DETERMINE  THE  NON-CONDUCTIVE 
VALUES  OF  VARIOUS  MATERIALS. 

(Dr.  Wm.  Wallace.} 


Cubic 

MATERIALS. 

Centimetres 
(grammes)  of 
water  melted 

Average  c.c.'s 
per  day. 

in  12  days. 

Silicate  Cotton 

9.470 

789 

Flake  Charcoal 

11,010 

917 

Felt      .. 

11,760 

980 

Fossil  Meal     .. 

12,530 

,044 

Twig  Charcoal 

I3>590 

,132 

Plain  Cork  Slabs 

14,020 

,168 

Tarred  Cork  Slabs 

I4,6lO 

,217 

Broken  Lump  Charcoal 

I5»9l6 

,326 

Ashes  

23,316 

,943 

Coleman's  method  was  used  in  making  the  above   tests,   with 
walls  6  in.  thick. 


RATE    OF    PASSAGE  OF    HEAT    THROUGH    VARIOUS 
MATERIALS. — (Alex.  Manet.) 


British  Thermal  Units  per  hour  per  superficial  foot  through  materials 
6  in.  thick. 

T  =  60° 

T  =  50° 

T  =  4o° 

Dry. 

Wet. 

Dry. 

Wet. 

Dry. 

Wet. 

Silicate  Cotton 

4-11 

2-14 

8-57 

I-I7 

670 

Cow  Hair  .  . 
Charcoal    .. 
Sawdust    .  . 
Infusorial  Earth 

4-11 

4-70 

6-75 

10-00 

8-80 
12-30 
15-60 

2'34 
2'93 

6-18 

5'30 
9-60 

I-I7 
1-76 
2'34 

3*57 

3-50 
4-40 

5*50 

Cork  Bricks 

5-87 

~— 

3*20 

-~ 

2-90 

~—~ 

T  =  The  Difference  of 


Temperature  (Fahr.)  on 
material. 


the  two  sides  of  the 


INSULATION. 


IIQ 


RESULTS  OF  TESTS  ON  THE  HEAT  CONDUCTIVITY  OF 
DIFFERENT  SUBSTANCES 

( Various  authorities.) 
(Silicate  Cotton  being  taken  at  100.) 


SUBSTANCE. 

C.E. 

Emery, 
1881. 

J.J.Cole- 
man, 

1884. 

W.  H.' 

Collins, 
1891. 

Prof. 
Jamieson 
1894. 

Silicate  Cotton  or  Slag  Wool     .  . 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Hair-  Felt  or  Fibrous  Composition 

— 

117 

114 

112 

Papier-Mache 

— 

J47 

III 

Kieselguhr  Composition 

— 

ijs 

112 

Sawdust      .  .         .  . 

122 

163 

142 



Charcoal 

132 

140 

__ 

Cotton  Wool 

122 

___ 



Sheep's  Wool 



136 

__ 



Pine  Wood  (across  the  grain) 

ISO 

— 

— 

Loam          .  . 





___ 

Gasworks  Breeze  or  Coal  Ashes 

24O 

230 

299 

— 

Asbestos     

229 

179 

~~~ 

TABLE  GIVING  THE  RELATIVE  HEAT  CONDUCTIVITY  OF 
VARIOUS  BOILER-COVERING  MATERIALS. 

(The  "American  Engineer.") 


100 

117 


Silicate  Cotton  or  Mineral  Wool 
Hair  Felt          ..         ..         „_ .__     ,. 

CottonWool    ..    ^..         ,122 

Sheep's  Wool 136 


Infusorial  Earth 
Charcoal  . . 

Sawdust 

Gasworks  Breeze 
Wood  and  air  space 


136 
140 

163 

230 
280 


I2O 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  REGARDING  NON  HEAT-CON- 
DUCTING PROPERTIES  OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES. — 
(Prof.J.  M.  Ordway.) 


Coverings  i  inch  thick. 

Pounds  of  Water 
heated  10°  F.  per 
hour  by  i  sq.  foot. 

II 

"  Silicate  Cotton"  or  "  Slag  Wool  " 

13-0 

2 

Paper 

14-0 

3 

Cork  Strips,  bound  on 

14-6 

4 

Straw  Rope,  wound  spirally 

18-0 

5 

Loose  Rice  Chaff    

187 

6 

/    7 

Blotting  Paper,  wound  tight 
Paste  of  Fossil  Meal  and  Hair 

21'0 
167 

i   8 

Loose  Bituminous  Coal  Ashes 

21'0 

J    9 

Paste  of  Fossil  Meal  with  Asbestos 

22-0 

t    10 

Loose  Anthracite  Coal  Ashes 

27-0 

11 

Paste  of  Clay  and  Vegetable  Fibre 

30-9 

\  I2 

Dry  Plaster  of  Paris 

30-9 

13 

Asbestos  Paper,  wound  tight 

217 

14 

Air  alone 

48-0 

I< 

Fine  Asbestos 

49  'O 

16 

Sand  

2-16 

*  These  substances  are  not  well  suited  for  covering  heated  surfaces — 
owing  to  their  nature  they  soon  become  carbonised. 

t  Hard  substances  that,  with  the  action  of  the  heat,  break,  powder, 
and  fall  off. 

N.B. — The  Asbestos  of  15  had  smooth  fibres,  which  could  not  pre- 
vent the  air  from  moving  about.  Later  trials  with  an  Asbestos  of 
exceedingly  fine  fibre  have  made  a  somewhat  better  showing,  but 
Asbestos  is  really  one  of  the  poorest  non-conductors.  By  reason  of  its 
fibrous  character  it  may  be  used  advantageously  to  hold  together  other 
incombustible  substances,  but  the  less  the  better. 


NON   HEAT-CONDUCTING   PROPERTIES   OF  VARIOUS  SUB- 
STANCES.— (From  "  Engineering."} 


Prepared  Mixtures,  for  Covering  Boilers,  Pipes,  &c. 

Pounds  of  Water 
heated  10°  Fahr. 
per  hour,  per 
square  foot. 

Slag  Wool  (Silicate  Cotton)  and  Hair  Paste 
Fossil  Meal  and  Hair  Paste  
Paper  Pulp  alone        
Asbestos  Fibre,  wrapped  tightly 
Fossil  Meal  and  Asbestos  Powder 
Coal  Ashes  and  Clay  Paste,  wrapped  with  Straw 
Clay,  Dung,  and  Vegetable  Fibre  Paste     .  . 
Paper  Pulp,  Clay  and  Vegetable  Fibre 

• 

lO'O  11 

10-4 

147 
17-9 

26-3 

29-9 
39-6 
44-6 

)S. 

INSULATION. 


121 


RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  REGARDING  NON  HEAT-CON- 
DUCTING PROPERTIES  OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES. 

(Walter  Jones,  "Heating  ly  Hot  Water.") 


Frame  Filled  with 

Left  for 

Highest  Temp. 
Registered. 

Leroy's  Boiler-covering  Composition  .  . 
Asbestos  Powder 

3  hours 
4      » 

94° 
86° 

Hair  Felt 

9      „ 

77° 

Silicate  Cotton    .  . 



9      „ 

76° 

HEAT  IN  UNITS  TRANSMITTED  PER  SQUARE  FOOT  PER 

HOUR  THROUGH   VARIOUS   SUBSTANCES. 
(Peclet.) 


Materials. 

Units  of 
heat  trans- 
mitted. 

Materials. 

Units  of 
heat  trans- 
mitted. 

Gold   .                 ^ 

625 

Guttapercha 

'37 

Platinum 

600 

India-rubber 

•36 

Silver  . 

595 

Brickdust,  sifted  . 

'33 

Copper 

520 

Coke,  in  powder  . 

•29 

Iron 

230 

Iron  filings  . 

•26 

Zinc 

225 

Cork  . 

•!5 

Tin 

178 

Chalk,  in  powder 

0-86 

Lead 

Charcoal  (wood)  in  pow 

Marble 

24 

der  . 

0-63 

Stone 
Glass 

r<u 

Straw,  chopped  . 
Coal,  powder  sifted 

0-56 

Terra-cotta                 - 

4-8 

Wood  ashes 

°'53 

Brickwork 

4;8 

Mahogany  dust    . 

0-52 

Plaster 

Canvas,  hempen  new 

0-41 

Sand  . 

2-17 

Calico,  new 

0*40 

Oak,  against,  the  grain 
or  fibre     . 
Walnut,  with  the  grain 

17 

Writing-paper,  white 
Cotton  and  sheep's  woo 
Eiderdown  . 

0-32 
0-31 

or  fibre     . 

1-4 

Blotting-paper,  grey 

0-26 

Fir,  with  the  grain  or 

fibre 

i'37 

122 


REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 


RELATIVE  AND  ABSOLUTE  THERMAL  CONDUCTIVITY  OF 
SUBSTANCES  USED  AS  LAGGING  FOR  STEAM  BOILERS. — 
( Professor  Jamieson. ) 

RESULTS  OF  THE  TESTS. 


*&'•"• 

a  a 

If 

-si 

gl 

|H 

{•I 

•3  1*  8 

•tl-- 

Name  of  Material. 

*o  ° 

fe  U  ff> 

'-3^3^ 

a 

f-H     H 

S|l 

||| 

Jl 

11 

^^ 

o| 
o 

H 

Ibs.     oz. 

Degr.  Cent. 

Dry  air    . 

6-0 

0-0000558 

i-oo 

Fossil  meal  composition  . 
Cement  with  hair  felt*     . 

7      2 
5    15 

M-5 

30-0 

0-0002689 
0-0003613 

4-82 
6-47 

Silicate  cotton,  f  or  slag 

wool     .... 

— 

29-0 

0-0003875 

6-95 

Kieselguhr  J   composition 
Papier  mache  composition§ 
Fibrous  composition  (flax, 
hemp,  cow-hair,  and  clay) 
Papier  mache  composition|| 

7    13 

7      6 

9      9 

8      12 

29-0 
35'5 

34'5 

37'5 

0-0004336 
0-0004424 

0-0004550 
0-0005019 

7'77 
7'93 

7-98 
8-99 

*  The  outside  diameter  of  this  sample  was  about  £  in.  smaller  than  the 
inside  diameter  of  the  middle  tin-case  or  vessel,  and  it  had  consequently 
a  slight  advantage  over  ths  other  samples  in  having  a  thin  layer  of  air 
between  its  outer  surface  and  the  latter. 

f  The  silicate  cotton  was  pressed  together  tightly,  and  thus  its 
conductivity  appears  greater  than  would  have  been  the  case  had  it  been 
more  loosely  packed. 

J  The  Kieselguhr  employed  consisted  on  the  average  of  Silica  83-8, 
Magnesia  0-7,  Lime  O-8,  Alumina  ro,  Peroxide  of  Iron  2-1,  Organic 
Matter  4-5,  Moisture  and  Loss,  7-1.  It  was  employed  in  conjunction 
with  10  per  cent,  of  binding  material,  viz.,  fibre  and  mucilaginous 
extract  of  several  vegetable  matters. 

§  Papier  mache  composition,  consisting  of  paper  pulp  mixed  with  clay 
and  carbon,  together  with  hair  and  fragments  of  hemp  rope. 

||  A  lighter  modification  of  above. 

The  quantity  of  heat  in  units,  transmitted  through  one 
^quare  foot  of  plate  per  hour,  may  be  found  thus  :  Subtract 


INSULATION. 


123 


the  temperature  of  the  cooler  side  from  that  of  the  hotter 
side  of  the  plate,  then  multiply  the  result  by  the  number  in 
the  table  on  p.  121  corresponding  to  the  material  used,  and 
divide  the  product  by  the  thickness  of  plate  in  inches.  Thus 
an  iron  plate  2  in.  thick,  having  a  temperature  of  60°  on  one 
side  and  80°  on  the  other,  will  transmit  80  —  60  X  fMp-  =  2300 
units  of  heat  per  square  foot  per  hour. 


HEAT-CONDUCTING  POWER  OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES, 
SLATE  BEING  1000. — (Molesworth.) 


Slate  ....  1,000 
Lead  .  .  .  .5,210 
Flagstone  .  .  .1,110 
Portland  stone  .  .  750 
Brick  .  .  .  600  to  730 
Fire-brick  .  .  .  620 


Chalk 
Asphalt    . 
Oak  . 

Lath  and  plaster 
Cement     . 


564 
45i 
336 
255 

200 


TESTS     REGARDING     CONDUCTIVITIES     OF     ASBESTOS     AND 

KIESELGUHR. — (/.    G.   Dobbie.) 
RESULTS  OF  TESTS. 


Asbestos. 

Kieselguhr  Com- 
position. 

Water  Condensed 
in  Inches. 

Water  Condensed 
in  Inches. 

After  15  minutes    . 
„     30       »         • 
»     45       »»         • 
„     60      „         . 

Totals  in  one  hour  . 

4 

3! 

3t 
31 

a| 

2f 
2I 

Hi 

9i 

124 


REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


RESULTS  OF  DIFFERENT  EXPERIMENTS  ON  THE  HEAT  CON- 
DUCTIVITIES OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES. — (W.  H.   Collins?) 

(Silicate  cotton  being  taken  as  100.) 


Substance. 

fl    M 

Woo 
0 

e 

rt 

if 

H^ 

| 

.00 

it 

0 

£ 

70 

Cement  with  hair-felt     . 
Silicate  cotton  or  slag  wool    . 
Hair-felt  or  fibrous  composition 

83 

IOO 

IOO 

117 

IOO 
114 

147 

93 

IOO 
112 
III 

Kieselguhr  composition  . 

122 

136 

14.2 

112 

Charcoal        

140 

122 

Pine  wood  (across  the  grain)  . 
Loam    
Gasworks  breeze  or  coal  ashes 
Asbestos       

240 
229 

230 

299 
179 

EXPERIMENTS  BY  T.  B.  LIGHTFOOT  AND  G.  A.  BECKS. 
EXPERIMENT  No.  i. 

Duration  of  experiment,  48  hours.  Average  temperature 
of  room  or  chamber,  90°  F. 

A  piece  of  ice  23  Ibs.  in  weight  was  placed  in  a  zinc  box 
12  in.  cube,  and  covered  with  2  in.  silicate  cotton,  this 
latter  being  provided  with  an  outer  cover,  also  of  zinc. 
When  the  ice  was  taken  out  it  weighed  io£  Ibs.,  showing  a 
loss  of  i2£  Ibs. 

i2\  Ibs.  x  142  (latent  heat  of  ice)  =  1775  thermal  units 
passed  through  in  48  hours,  ^-p  =  36*979166  thermal 
units  passed  through  in  i  hour. 

Difference  in  temperature  between  inner  box  and  outer 
air  =  58°  F.  -™¥-  =  0*63  thermal  unit  transmitted  per 
hour  per  degree  difference  in  temperature.  Area  of  zinc 
boxes :  inner  box,  6  sq.  ft. ;  outer,  10*6  sq.  ft. ;  mean, 
8'i  sq.  ft. 


INSULATION.  125 

Thermal  units  transmitted  through  the  three  areas — 

•    —   O'lOfj)   •— •  O*O7) =  O'O^Q 

•  •    o  8*1  1 0*6 

which  being  multiplied  by  2  for  the  thickness  of  cotton, 
gives  thermal  units  per  hour,  per  degree  difference  in 
temperature,  per  square  foot,  per  inch  of  thickness,  as 
follows  :  o'2io  inner  tin,  q'ii8  outer  tin,  0*14  mean. 

EXPERIMENT  No.  2. 

Duration,  48  hours.  Average  temperature  of  room, 
90°  F. 

A  piece  of  ice  26  Ibs.  in  weight,  covered  with  6  in.  of 
charcoal.  When  taken  out  it  weighed  7^  Ibs.,  showing  a 
loss  of  i8|-  Ibs.  18-5  X  142  =  2627  thermal  units  in  48 
hours.  -Hip-  =  54*72  thermal  units  per  hour.  *-$$•*•  =  0*94 
thermal  units  per  hour,  per  degree  difference  in  temperature 
between  inner  box  and  outer  air.  Area  of  tins  :  inner  box, 
6  sq.  ft.;  outer,  24  sq.  ft.;  mean,  13-5  sq.  ft. 

The  number  of  thermal  units  transmitted  per  hour,  per 
degree,  per  square  foot — 

-6*  =  °'IS>  7?-5  =  °'°69'  ^  =  °'°39 
which  being  multiplied  by  6  for  the  thickness  of  charcoal, 
gives  thermal  units  transmitted  per  hour,  per  degree,  per 
square  foot,  per  inch  of  thickness;   0*90  inner  tin,  0*234 
outer  tin,  4*14  mean. 

FORMULA  FOR  ASCERTAINING  UNITS  OF  REFRIGERATION  (R) 
REQUIRED  IN  24  HOURS,  TO  CARRY  OFF  HEAT 
RADIATED  THROUGH  SQ.  FT.  (/)  OF  WALL,  FLOOR, 
AND  CEILING. 


HU  =  heat  units  of  772  ft.  Ibs.,  /  =  internal  temperature, 
/!  =  external  temperature,  and  n  -  heat  units  transmitted 
per  24  hours  per  sq.  ft.  of  surface  for  difference  of  i°  Fahr. 
between  internal  and  external  temperature. 


126 


REFRIGERATION   AND   ICE-MAKING. 


TRANSMISSION  OF  HEAT  THROUGH  VARIOUS  INSULATING 
STRUCTURES. — (Starr,  American  Warehousemen, 's  Assoc.) 


Insulating  Structures. 

B.  T.  U.  per 

sq.  ft.  per 
day  per  deg. 
of  difference 
of  tempera- 
ture. 

Meltage  of 
ice  in  Ibs.  per 
day  by  heat 
coming 
through  100 
sq.  ft.  at  a 
difference  of 
40°. 

jj-in.  oak,  paper,  i-in.  lampblack  |-in.  pine 

(ordinary  Stock  family  refrigerator) 

57 

160*7 

^-in.  board,  i-in.  pitch,  |-in.  board 

4-90 

138-0 

Four  |-in.  spruce  boards,  two  papers,  solid, 

no  air-space 

4-28 

I20'0 

Two  double  boards  and  paper  (four  J-in. 

boards),  and  one  air-space 

37i 

I05'0 

|-in.  board,  2-in.  pitch,  |-in.  board 

4*25 

II9-7 

^-in.   board,   2^-in.   mineral  wool,  paper, 

|-in.  board 

3-62 

101-9 

Two  ^-in.  double  boards,  and  two  papers, 

i-in.  hair  felt        

3*3*8 

93*4 

Two  ^-boards  and  paper,  i-in.  sheet  cork, 

two  |-in.  boards  and  paper 

3'3o 

92*9 

2-in.  board,  paper,  2-in.  calcined  pumice, 

paper,  and  |-in.  board 

3-38 

95'2 

Four  double  |-in.  boards  with  paper  between 
(eight  boards),  and  three  8-in.  air-spaces 

27 

76-0 

Hair  quilt  insulator,  four  boards,  four  quilts 

hair 

2-517 

70-9 

7  -in.  board,  6-in.  pat.  silicated  straw-board, 

air-cell  finished  inside  with  thin  layer  of 

patent  cement 

2-48 

69-8 

g-in.  board,  paper,  3-in.  sheet  cork,  paper, 

|-in.  board 

2'10 

6o'o 

Two  |-in.  boards  and  paper,   8-in.    mill 

shavings  and  paper,  two  ^-in.  boards  and 

paper         .  .      _  
Same,  slightly  moist 

II 

38;3 

Same,  damp 

2'10 

6o'o 

Double  boards  and  paper,  I  -in.  air,  4-in. 

sheet  cork,  paper,  $-in.  board 

I'2O 

33'6 

Same,  with  5-in.  sheet  cork 

o%9O 

25-3 

J-in.  board,  paper,  i-in.  mineral  wool,  paper, 

g-in.  board.  . 

4'6 

130-0 

Double  boards  and  papers,  4-in.  granulated 

cork,  double  boards  and  paper 

17 

48-0 

INSULATION.  127 

WALLS  FOR  COLD  STORES. 

The  following  materials  and  dimensions  have  been  re- 
commended for  walls  of  cold  chambers : — 

14  in.  brick  wall,  3^  in.  air  space,  9  in.  brick  wall, 
i  in.  layer  of  cement,  i  in.  layer  of  pitch,  2  in.  by  3  in. 
studding,  layer  of  tar  paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  2  in.  by  4  in.  studding,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
board,  layer  of  tar  paper,  and,  finally,  i  in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding,  the  total  thickness  of  these  layers  or 
skins  being  3  ft.  3  in. 

36  in.  brick  wall,  i  in.  layer  of  pitch,  i  in.  sheathing, 
4  in.  air  space,  2  in.  by  4  in.  studding,  i  in.  sheathing, 

3  in.  layer  of  mineral  or  slag- wool,  2  in.  by  4  in.  studding, 
and,  finally,  i  in.  sheathing ;  total  thickness,  4  ft.  7  in. 

14  in.  brick  wall,  4  in.  pitch  and  ashes,  4  in.  brick  wall, 

4  in.  air  space,  14  in.  brick  wall ;  total  thickness,  3  ft.  4  in. 
14  in.  brick  wall,  6  in.  air  space,  double  thickness  of 

i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boards,  with  a  layer  of  water- 
proof paper  between  them,  2  in.  layer  of  the  best  quality 
hair  felt,  second  double  thickness  of  i  in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boards,  with  a  similar  layer  of  paper  between 
them ;  total  thickness,  2  ft.  2  in. 

14  in.  brick  wall,  8  in.  layer  of  sawdust,  double  thickness 
of  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boards,  with  a  layer  of  tarred 
waterproof  paper  between  them,  2  in.  layer  of  hair  felt, 
second  double  thickness  of  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boards,  with  a  similar  layer  of  paper  between  them ;  total 
thickness,  2  ft.  4-|  in. 

Brick  wall,  3  in.  scratched  hollow  tiles,  4  in.  silicate 
cotton  or  slag-wool,  3  in.  scratched  hollow  tileSj  and  layer 
of  cement  plaster. 

Brick  wall,  i  in.  air  spaces  between  fillets  or  strips,  i  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper 
T  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  by  4  in.  studs, 
1 6  in.  apart,  spaces  filled  in  with  silicate  cotton,  i  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating 
paper,  air  spaces  between  fillets,  or  strips  i  in.  by  2  in. 
spaced  16  in.  apart  from  centres,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  and  i  in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boatding. 


128  REFRIGERATION   AND   ICE-MAKING. 

Brick  or  stone  wall,  well  coated  on  inside  with  pitch  or 
asphaltum,  2  in.  by  3  in.  studding,  24  in.  centres  spaces 
between  filled  in  with  silicate  cotton,  f-  in.  rough  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  waterproof  insulating 
paper,  f-  in.  rough  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  by 

3  in.  studding  24  in.  centres  in  spaces  between,  f  in.  rough 
tongued  and  grooved   boarding,  two  layers  of  waterproof 
insulating  paper,  f  in.  rough  tongued  and  grooved  boarding, 
2  in.  by  3  in.  studding,  24  in.  centres  spaces  between  filled 
in  with  silicate  cotton,  £  in.  rough  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  two  layers  of  waterproof  insulating  paper,  and 
J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding.     Paper  to  be 
laid  one-half  lap  and  cemented  at  all  joints. 

Brick  wall  2  in.  air  space,  2  in.  thicknesses  of  tongued 
and  grooved  boards  with  three  layers  of  paper  between, 
2  in.  air  space,  2  in.  thicknesses  of  tongued  and  grooved 
boards  with  three  layers  of  paper  between,  2  in.  air  space 
and  2  in.  thicknesses  of  tongued  and  grooved  boards  with 
three  layers  of  paper  between. 

Brick  wall  well  coated  with  pitch,  2  in.  air  space,  2  in. 
thicknesses  of  tongued  and  grooved  boards  with  three  layers 
of  paper  between,  2  in.  space  filled  with  slag-wool  or  cork, 
2  in.  thicknesses  of  tongued  and  grooved  boards,  with  three 
layers  of  paper  between,  2  in.  space  filled  with  slag-wool 
or  cork,  2  in.  thicknesses  of  tongued  and  grooved  boards 
with  three  layers  of  paper  between.  Shelving  should  be 
fixed  horizontally  in  the  spaces  packed  with  slag-wool  or 
cork  at  about  16  in.  apart. 

Brick  wall,  i  in.  air  space,  f  in.  match-boarding,  9  in. 
slag-wool  or  silicate  cotton,  layer  of  insulating  paper,  and 
J  in.  match-boarding. 

Brick  wall,  i  in.  air  space,  6  in.  slag-wool  or  silicate 
cotton,  i  in.  silicate  of  cotton  slab,  layer  of  insulating  paper, 
•i-  in.  air  space,  and  j  in.  match-boarding. 

Brick  wall,  i  in.  air  space,  i  in.  silicate  of  cotton  slab, 

4  in.  silicate  of  cotton,  i  in.  silicate  of  cotton  slab,  -^  in. 
air  space,  and  J  in.  match-boarding. 

Brick  wall  well  coated  with  pitch,  2  in.  air  space,  |  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  J  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  4  in,  slag-wool  or  silicate 
cotton,  &  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of 


INSULATION.  129 

paper,  -J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  air  space, 
-£  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper, 
and  %  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

Brick  wall,  2  in.  air  space,  £•  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  -J-  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  2  in.  air  space,  J-  in.  tongued  and  grooved  board- 
ing, two  layers  of  paper,  and  |  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding. 

Brick  wall,  2  in.  air  space,  -|  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  one  layer  of  paper,  4  in.  slag-wool  or  silicate 
cotton,  J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  one  layer  of 
paper,  4  in.  air  space,  -J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  board- 
ing, two  layers  of  paper,  and  |  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding. 

Brick  wall,  layer  of  pitch,  f  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  2  in.  air  space,  J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  board- 
ing, one  layer  of  paper,  3  in.  cork  dust,  f  in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of^  paper,  and  |  in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding. 

Brick  wall,  2\  in.  air  space  ventilated  by  air-bricks 
every  5  feet  in  all  directions,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  layer  of  insulating  paper,  i  in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding,  12  in.  charcoal  supported  by  horizontal 
shelving  28  in.  centres  apart,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  two  thicknesses  of  brown  paper,  and  i  in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding. 

Wall  of  cold  storage  room  when  made  of  wood :  2  in. 
thicknesses  of  tongued  and  grooved  boarding  with  three 
layers  of  paper  between,  2  in.  air  space,  2  in.  thicknesses 
of  tongued  and  grooved  boarding  with  three  layers  of  paper 
between,  2  in.  air  space,  2  in.  thicknesses  of  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding  with  three  layers  of  paper  between,  2  in. 
air  space,  2  in.  thicknesses  of  tongued  and  grooved  boarding 
with  three  layers  of  paper  between,  8  in.  slag-wool  or  silicate 
cotton,  and  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

2  in.  boards,  $\  in.  by  3  in.  uprights,  spaces  between 
filled  with  carefully  dried  wood  charcoal,  i-|  in.  boarding, 
layer  of  insulating  paper,  and  i£  in.  boarding. 

Outside  siding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  i  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  by  6  in.  studdings, 
1 6  in.  apart  from  centres,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding, 


130  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 

two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  2  in.  by  4  in.  studding  16  in.  apart  from  centres, 
spaces  filled  in  with  silicate  cotton,  i  in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  2  in.  by 
2  in.  fillets  or  strips  16  in.  apart  from  centres,  i  in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  and 

1  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

DIVISIONAL  PARTITIONS  FOR  COLD  STORES. 

Tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  wire  netting,  6  in. 
silicate  of  cotton  or  slag-wool,  wire  netting,  tongued  and 
grooved  match-boarding.  The  object  of  the  netting  is  to 
render  the  partition  fire-proof  by  supporting  the  silicate  of 
cotton  after  the  match-boarding  might  have  burnt  away. 

%  in.  match-boarding,  ^  in.  air  space,  i  in.  silicate  cotton 
slab,  4  in.  of  silicate  of  cotton  or  slag-wool,  i  in.  silicate 
of  cotton  slab,  J  in.  air  space,  and  i  in.  silicate  of  cotton 
slab. 

2  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  with  three  layers  of 
paper  between,  2  in.  silicate  of  cotton  or  cork,  2  in.  tongued 
and  grooved  boarding  with  three  layers  of  paper  between, 

2  in.  silicate  of  cotton  or  cork,  2  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding  with  three  layers  of  paper  between. 

•§•  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper, 
£  in.  tongued  and  -grooved  boarding,  4  in.  silicate  cotton 
or  slag-wool,  J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  air 
space,  J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of 
paper,  and  •£•  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

|  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper, 
|  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  6  in.  silicate  of  cotton 
or  slag-wool,  £  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two 
layers  of  paper,  J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in. 
air  space,  J-  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers 
of  paper,  and  -J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

|  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  silicate  cotton 
or  slag-wool,  f  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  air 
space,  •§•  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of 
paper,  and  £  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

{•  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper, 
|  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  air  space,  J  in. 


INSULATION.  131 

tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  and 
J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper, 
|-  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  8  in.  silicate  cotton  or 
slag-wool,  |  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers 
of  paper,  and  -|  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

|-  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper, 
-|  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  4  in.  silicate  cotton  or 
slag-wool,  -|  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers 
of  paper,  and  |  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

-J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper, 
!•  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  hair  felt,  |-  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  silicate  cotton  or  slag- 
wool,  |-  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of 
paper,  and  J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

FLOORING  FOR  COLD  STORES. 

2  in.  flooring,  two  layers  of  paper,  -J  in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding,  2  in.  air  space  between  fillets  or  scant- 
lings, -f  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  12  in.  joists, 
spaces  between  packed  with  silicate  cotton  or  slag- wool, 
|  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper, 
|  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  air  space  between 
fillets  and  scantlings,  J-  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding, 
two  layers  of  paper,  and  -f  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding. 

2  in.  cement,  3  in.  concrete,  -J  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  2  in.  flooring,  4  in.  silicate 
cotton  between  fillets  or  scantlings,  -J  in.  tongued  and 
grooved  boarding,  two  layers  of  paper,  and  2  in.  flooring 
boards  on  fillets  or  scantlings  set  in  concrete. 

2  in.  asphalte,  -J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two 
layers  of  paper,  J-  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in. 
air  space  between  scantlings,  f  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
boarding,  3  in.  silicate  cotton  or  slag-wool  between  fillets 
or  scantlings,  J-  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in.  air 
space  between  fillets  or  scantlings,  concrete. 

i  in.  asphalte,  2  in.  concrete,  £  in.  pitch,  2  in.  concrete, 
brick  arches. 

i-j  in.  tongued  and  grooved  flooring,  layer  of  insulating 


132  REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 

paper,  2  in.  by  9  in.  joists,  12  in.  centres  apart,  spaces 
filled  with  silicate  cotton  or  slag-wool,  wire  netting,  layer 
of  insulating  paper,  f-  in.  match-boarding  on  2  in.  by  2  in. 
fillets  or  scantlings  air  spaces  between,  existing  wooden  or 
concrete  flooring.  The  wire  netting  secured  to  the  under 
side  of  the  joists  serves  to  retain  the  silicate  cotton  in  case 
of  fire. 

1  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  three  layers   of 
insulating  paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  2  in. 
by  9  in.  joists,  spaces  between  filled  in  with  silicate  cotton 
or  cork,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  three  layers 
of   insulating    paper,   and    i    in.   tongued    and    grooved 
boarding. 

ij  in.  tongued  and  grooved  flooring,  layer  of  insulating 
paper,  2  in.  by  9  in.  joists,  12  in.  centres  apart,  spaces 
between  filled  in  with  silicate  cotton  or  slag-wool,  i  in. 
silicate  cotton  slab  on  •!•  in.  by  2  in.  fillets  air  spaces 
between,  and  f  in.  match-boarding.  The  i  in.  silicate  of 
cotton  slab  is  nailed  on  the  under  side  of  joists  and  is 
claimed  to  render  the  floor  fire-proof,  and  to  prevent 
radiation  through  the  joists. 

2  in.  matched  flooring,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper, 
i  in.  matched  sheathing,  4  in.  by  4  in.  sleepers    16  in. 
apart  from  centres,  spaces  between  filled  in  with  silicate 
cotton,  double  i  in.  matched  sheathing  with  twelve  layers 
of  paper  between,  and  4  in.  by  4  in.  sleepers  16  in.  apart 
from  centres  imbedded  in  12  in.  of  dry  underfilling. 

Ground,  concrete,  layer  of  asphalte,  i  in.  tongued  and 
grooved  match-boarding  well  tarred,  two  layers  of  stout 
brown  paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding, 
floor  joists  3  in.  by  n  in.  spaced  21  in.  apart,  binder  joists 
ii  in.  by  4  in.,  bearing  edges  of  floor  joists  protected  by 
strips  of  hair  felt  ^  in.  thick  and  spaces  between  joists  filled 
in  with  flake  charcoal,  and  ij-  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
flooring  boards. 

As  a  further  example  of  methods  that  have  been  actually 
successfully  employed  for  insulation,  it  will  be  interesting 
to  know  that  the  cold  storage  chambers  built  at  the  St. 
Katherine  Dock,  London,  were  constructed  as  follows : — 

On  the  concrete  floor  of  the  vault,  as  it  stood  originally, 
a  covering  of  rough  boards  ij  in.  in  thickness  were  laid 


INSULATION.  133 

longitudinally.  On  this  layer  of  boards  were  then  placed 
transversely,  bearers  formed  of  joists  4^  in.  in  depth  by 
3  in.  in  width,  and  spaced  21  in.  apart.  These  bearers 
supported  the  floor  of  the  storage  chamber,  which  consisted 
of  2\  in.  battens  tongued  and  grooved.  The  4^  in.  wide 
space  or  clearance  between  this  floor  and  the  layer  or 
covering  of  rough  boards  upon  the  lower  concrete  floor  was 
filled  with  well-dried  wood  charcoal. 


FLOORING  FOR  ICE  HOUSES. 

Floor  to  incline  3  in.  towards  central  drain,  and  cross 
channelled  fillets  or  scantlings  on  i^  in.  flooring,  2  in. 
cement,  6  in.  concrete,  ground. 

i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers 
of  paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding  (to 
incline  3  in.  towards  central  drain)  on  fillets  or  scantlings, 
air  spaces  between,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match- 
boarding,  three  layers  of  paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
match-boarding,  2  in.  by  9  in.  joists  spaces  between  filled 
with  4  in.  silicate  of  cotton  or  slag-wool  kept  in  position  by 
f  in.  boards  secured  by  cleats  to  joists. 

CEILINGS  FOR  COLD  STORES  AND  ICE  HOUSES. 

i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers 
of  insulating  paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match- 
boarding,  2  in.  air  spaces  between  strips  or  fillets,  i  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  three  layers  of  insulating 
paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  joists  spaces 
between  filled  with  silicate  cotton  or  cork,  i  in.  tongued 
and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  insulating 
paper,  and  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding. 

Insulated  flooring,  joists,  -|  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
match-boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  |-  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  2  in.  spaces  between 
strips  or  fillets  filled  in  with  silicate  cotton  or  cork,  %  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  in- 
sulating paper,  and  f  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match- 
boarding. 

i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  two  thicknesses  of 


134  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 

brown  paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  joists 
with  spaces  between  packed  with  silicate  cotton,  i  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  Willesden  paper,  and  i  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  boarding. 

Concrete  floor,  3  in.  book  tiles,  6  in.  dry  underfilling, 
double  space  hollow  tile  arches  and  layer  of  cement  plaster. 

Double  i  in.  floor  with  two  layers  of  insulating  paper 
between,  2  in.  by  2  in.  strips  or  fillets  16  in.  apart  from 
centres,  spaces  filled  in  with  silicate  cotton,  two  layers  of 
insulating  paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-board- 
ing, 2  in.  by  2  in.  strips  16  in.  apart,  spaces  filled  in  with 
silicate  cotton,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  i  in.  tongued 
and  grooved  match-boarding,  joists  and  double  i  in. 
flooring  with  two  layers  of  insulating  paper  between. 


DOOR  INSULATION. 

i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers 
of  insulating  paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match- 
boarding,  2  in.  by  i  in.  fillets  or  strips,  with  spaces  between 
filled  in  with  silicate  cotton  or  cork,  i  in.  tongued  and 
grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  insulating  paper, 
i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  2  in.  by  i  in. 
fillets  or  strips,  spaces  between  filled  in  with  silicate  cotton 
or  cork,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three 
layers  of  insulating  paper,  and  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
match-boarding. 

i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match- boarding,  two  layers  of 
insulating  paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding, 
1 2  in.  space  filled  in  with  silicate  cotton,  i  in.  tongued  and 
grooved  match-boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  and 
i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding. 


WINDOW  INSULATION. 

Windows  are  better  dispensed  with  in  cold  stores  and 
artificial  light  resorted  to;  where  present,  three  sashes 
spaced  a  few  inches  apart  and  glazed  at  both  sides  should 
be  used. 


INSULATION.  135 


TANK  INSULATION. 

Tank  sides:  4  in.  air  space  between  studding,  i  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of 
insulating  paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-board- 
ing, 4  in.  space  filled  with  cork,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved 
match-boarding,  three  layers  of  insulating  paper,  i  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  2  in.  air  space,  i  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of 
insulating  paper,  and  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match- 
boarding.  Bottom :  i  in.  space  between  strips,  fillets  or 
studding,  well  tarred  before  tank  is  placed  in  position,  i  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of  in- 
sulating paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding, 
i  in.  air  space  between  strips,  fillets  or  studding,  i  in. 
tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  three  layers  of 
insulating  paper,  i  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding, 
and  2  in.  by  9  in.  joists  on  concrete  or  ground  spaces 
between  filled  with  cinders. 

Tank :  2  in.  air  space  between  fillets,  f-  in.  tongued  and 
grooved  match-boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper, 
•§•  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  4  in.  silicate 
cotton  or  slag-wool,  f-  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match- 
boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper,  and  £  in.  tongued 
and  grooved  match-boarding. 

Tank:  2  in.  air  space  between  studding,  layer  of  in- 
sulating paper,  2  in.  flooring,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper, 
|  in.  tongued  and  grooved  boarding,  joists,  spaces  between 
filled  with  charcoal  for  three-quarters  depth,  £  in.  tongued 
and  grooved  match-boarding,  two  layers  of  insulating  paper, 
J  in.  tongued  and  grooved  match-boarding,  ground  or 
concrete. 


SECTION  V. 

TESTING   AND   MANAGEMENT   OF    REFRI- 
GERATING  MACHINERY. 

TESTING. 

THE  testing  of  a  refrigerating  plant  is  carried  out  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  what  it  is  capable  of  performing 
under  comparable  normal  conditions,  and  as  to  the  amount 
of  refrigeration  produced  in  relation  with  the  expenditure  of 
work,  and  the  coal  consumption. 

To  determine  the  efficiency  of  an  installation  on  the 
compression  system,  the  following  instruments  and  fittings 
are  required,  viz.  :  An  indicator,  so  that  diagrams  can  be 
taken  from  the  compressor ;  stroke  counters,  to  enable  the 
number  of  strokes  made  by  the  steam-engine  and  brine 
pumps  to  be  ascertained;  and  mercury  wells  to  admit  of 
the  temperature  being  obtained  at  various  points  through- 
out the  system. 

In  making  a  test  it  is  desirable  that  it  should  last  at  the 
very  least  for  fully  12  hours,  and  it  is  better  to  carry 
it  on  for  24  hours.  The  number  of  readings  which 
it  is  desirable  should  be  taken  from  the  various  in- 
struments will  vary  in  accordance  with  whether  or  not 
the  work  is  steady  or  otherwise,  and  the  person  carrying 
out  the  test  will  have,  of  course,  to  use  his  own  judgment 
on  this  head.  Where  artificial  ice  is  made,  for  example, 
twice  an  hour  will  be  sufficient,  whilst  on  the  other  hand, 
four  or  more  readings  per  hour  should  be  taken  in  cases 
where  the  variation  in  the  temperature  of  the  materials  to 
be  cooled  is  wide.  Indicator  diagrams  should  be  taken 
from  both  the  steam-engine  cylinder  and  the  compressor 
cylinder  every  two  hours. 


TESTING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  MACHINERY.      137 

A  mercury  well,  for  an  horizontal  pipe,  when  the  latter 
is  of  sufficient  dimensions,  consists  usually  in  a  short  piece 
of  tubing  closed  at  its  lower  end,  and  fitted  into  the  pipe 
by  means  of  a  suitable  bushing.  It  is  filled  about  three 
parts  full  of  mercury,  and  the  thermometer,  which  should 
have  an  elongated  cyclindrical  bulb,  is  held  in  position 
therein  by  means  of  a  perforated  cork.  For  vertical  pipes, 
or  pipes  of  very  small  dimensions,  where  this  arrangement 
would  be  impracticable,  the  well  is  generally  formed  by 
means  of  a  wooden  or  other  block,  one  side  of  which  is 
shaped  to  the  outline  of  the  pipe  to  which  it  is  to  be 
applied,  and  has  a  suitable  recess  formed  therein.  This 
block  is  firmly  secured  against  the  pipe  by  metal  strips  in 
such  a  manner  that  a  portion  of  the  wall  of  the  well  will 
be  formed  by  the  pipe,  the  latter  being  scraped  perfectly 
clean  at  that  part.  The  joint  between  the  block  and  the 
pipe  must  be  made  perfectly  tight,  which  can  easily  be 
effected  by  means  of  a  little  white-lead  paint,  there  being 
no  pressure,  and  the  whole  should  be  surrounded  by  a 
thick  layer  of  non-conducting  composition,  through  which 
the  stem  of  the  thermometer  is  permitted  to  project. 

The  points  in  the  system  where  it  is  desirable  to  locate 
the  mercury  wells  are :  The  suction  pipe  just  at  its 
connection  with  the  compressor;  the  discharge  pipe,  as 
close  as  possible  to  its  connection  with  the  compressor; 
the  ammonia  discharge  pipe  from  the  condenser,  as  near 
the  latter  as  practicable.  Where  a  brine  circulation  is 
employed :  The  pipe  or  manifold  supplying  the  various 
coils  or  sets  of  pipes  in  the  refrigerator ;  the  discharge  pipe 
of  the  refrigerator ;  the  brine  discharge  pipe,  at  the  point 
where  it  connects  to  the  refrigerator ;  and  the  brine  return 
pipe  in  proximity  to  where  it  connects  with  the  refrigerator. 

INTERPRETATION  OF  COMPRESSOR  DIAGRAM. 

The  interpretation  of  a  compressor  diagram  with  respect 
to  the  working,  valves,  defects,  etc.,  of  the  latter  are  given 
as  follows  by  Hans  Lorenz,  in  "  Neuere  Kuehlmaschinen," 
Muenchen  and  Leipzig,  1899. 

Assuming  all  the  parts  of  the  machine  to  be  in  good 
order,  then  the  diagram  will  have  the  general  appearance 


138  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 

shown  in  Fig.  23.  The  suction  line  S  is  only  slightly  below 
the  suction  pressure  line  V,  and  the  pressure  line  D  is 
only  slightly  above  the  condenser  pressure  K.  Small 
projections  at  the  pressure  and  suction  line  indicate  the 
work  required  to  open  the  compressor  valves,  and  the  effect 
of  clearance  is  shown  by  the  curve  R,  which  latter  cuts 
the  back  pressure  line  after  the  piston  has  commenced  to 
perform  its  return  or  back  stroke,  and  consequently  reduces 
the  suction  volume  to  that  amount.  It  can  also  be  seen 
from  this  diagram  that  the  vapours  are  taken  in  by  the 
compressor,  not  at  the  back  pressure,  but  at  what  may 
be  called  the  suction  pressure,  which  is  somewhat  lower. 
This  is  the  reason  that  the  compression  curve  C  does  not 
intersect  the  back  pressure  line  until  after  the  piston  has 
changed  its  direction  of  movement.  The  theoretical 
volume  of  the  compressor,  as  indicated  by  the  line  V,  is 
consequently  reduced  in  practical  working  for  vapours 
possessing  a  certain  tension. 

In  Fig.  24  is  shown  a  diagram  taken  from  a  compressor 
having  an  excessive  amount  of  clearance.  In  this  case,  it 
will  be  seen,  the  back  expansion  line  R  passes  through  a 
flat  course,  and  thereby  reduces  the  useful  volume  of  the 
compressor. 

Fig.  25  is  a  diagram  which  indicates  the  binding  of  the 
pressure  valve,  which  may  be  due  to  an  inclined  position 
of  the  guide  rod  of  the  valve.  This  deficiency  also  fre- 
quently causes  a  delay  in  the  opening  of  the  pressure 
valves,  a  state  of  things  indicated  by  a  too  great  projection 
in  the  pressure  line.  As  soon  as  the  valve  is  once  opened 
the  pressure  line  pursues  its  normal  course  until  the  piston 
commences  its  return  stroke,  when  the  defect  is  again 
manifested  in  the  back  pressure  line,  as  mentioned. 

Fig.  26  shows  a  diagram  indicating  too  great  a  resistance 
in  the  pressure  and  suction  pipes  respectively,  when  the 
valves  are  over-weighted.  In  this  case  the  pressure  and 
suction  line  are  at  a  comparatively  great  distance  from  the 
condenser  pressure  line  and  the  back  pressure  line.  The 
remedy  for  this  is  to  replace  the  valve  springs  by  weaker 
ones ;  and  should  there  be  then  no  marked  effect,  then  the 
pipe-lines  and  shutting-off  valves  should  be  inspected,  and, 
if  found  necessary,  cleaned. 


TESTING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  MACHINERY.     139 


FIG.  23.— Diagram  from  Compressor  with  all  parts  in  good  order. 


FIG.  24.— Diagram  from  Compressor  with  excessive  amount  of  clearance. 


ATMOSPHERIC    LINE. 


FIG.  25.— Diagram  from  Compressor  indicating  the  binding  of  the  Pressure  Valve. 


FIG.  26. — Diagram  from  Compressor  indicating  too  great  a  resistance  in 
the  Pressure  and  Suction  Valves. 


I4O  REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


FIG.  27.— Diagram  from  Compressor  indicating  the  binding  of  the  Suction  Valve. 


MMOSPHERIC    LINE. 


FIG.  28.— Diagram  from  Compressor  indicating  leaking  of  Compressor  Valves. 


Vr- 


ATMOSPHCRIC     LINE.  J 


FIG.  29. — Diagram  from  Compressor  indicating  Defective  Packing  of  Piston. 


TESTING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  MACHINERY.      141 

Fig.  27  indicates  the  binding  of  the  suction  valve  by  which 
a  considerable  decline  is  caused  in  the  pressure  at  the 
beginning  of  the  suction,  which  is  consequently  shown  by 
an  increased  projection  in  the  commencement  of  the  suction 
line.  At  the  beginning  of  compression  this  defect  makes 
itself  felt  by  causing  a  delay  in  the  latter,  which  effect  is 
also  shown  on  this  diagram. 

Fig.  28  shows  leaking  of  the  compressor  valves.  In  this 
diagram  the  projections  in  the  compression  and  suction 
line  do  not  appear,  but  the  compression  line  gradually 
merges  into  the  pressure  line,  and  the  back  expansion  line 
passes  gradually  into  the  suction  line.  If  the  leak  in  the 
pressure  valve  is  the  predominant  one,  then  the  compres- 
sion curve  will  be  almost  in  a  straight  line  and  very  steep ; 
if,  on  the  contrary,  the  leak  in  the  suction  valve  is  the 
predominant  one,  then  the  compression  line  will  run  a 
rather  flat  course. 

Fig.  29  indicates  that  the  piston  is  not  well  packed,  and, 
being  leaky,  the  vapours  are  permitted  to  pass  from  one 
side  of  the  piston  to  the  other,  thus  causing  a  very  gradual 
compression,  and  as  a  result  a  compression  line  having  a 
flat  course.  On  the  other  hand,  a  longer  time  will  be  taken 
before  the  suction  line  reaches  its  normal  level  on  the 
return  or  backward  stroke,  inasmuch  as  the  suction  valve 
is  prevented  from  opening  until  such  time  as  the  velocity 
of  the  piston  becomes  such  that  the  amount  of  vapours 
leaking  past  the  piston  is  insufficient  in  amount  to  fill  the 
suction  space.  The  pressure  then  gradually  diminishes  and 
the  suction  valve  then  begins  to  act,  as  is  shown  on  the 
diagram. 

It  is  to  be  understood  that  several  of  the  defects  above 
mentioned  may  exist  at  the  same  time. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  AMMONIA  COMPRESSION  MACHINES. 

Every  particular  type  of  machine  working  on  this  prin- 
ciple has,  as  a  rule,  certain  distinctive  or  characteristic 
features,  and  will,  of  course,  so  far  at  least  as  these  are 
concerned,  require  special  care  and  adjustment,  and  it 
would  consequently  be  totally  impossible  to  lay  down  an 
arbitrary  set  of  rules  for  working  that  would  be  suitable  to 


142  REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 

all;  nor  is  this  necessary  or  required,  as  full  particulars 
relating  to  the  manipulation  of  each  particular  machine 
are  invariably  supplied  by  the  makers.  The  following 
points,  however,  are  more  or  less  applicable  to  all  machines 
working  on  the  ammonia  compression  principle,  and  should 
therefore  be  familiar  to  those  in  charge  of  the  same. 

Before  charging  an  empty  machine  with  anhydrous 
ammonia,  all  air  must  first  be  carefully  expelled.  This  is 
effected  by  working  the  pumps  so  as  to  discharge  the  air 
through  special  valves  which  are  usually  provided  on  the 
pump  dome  for  that  purpose. 

The  entire  system  should  have  been  previously  to  this 
thoroughly  tested  by  working  the  compressor,  and  per- 
mitting air  to  enter  at  the  suction  through  the  special 
valves  provided  for  that  purpose,  and  it  should  be  perfectly 
tight  at  300  Ibs.  air  pressure  on  the  square  inch,  and  should 
be  able  to  hold  that  pressure  without  loss.  Whilst  testing 
the  system  under  air  pressure,  it  should  be  also  carefully 
blown  through  and  thoroughly  cleansed  from  all  dirt,  every 
trace  of  moisture  being  also  removed. 

It  is  totally  impossible  to  eject  all  air  from  the  plant  by 
means  of  the  compressor,  therefore  it  is  advisable  to  insert 
the  requisite  charge  of  ammonia  gradually  and  not  all  at 
once,  the  best  practice  being  to  put  in  from  60  to  70  per 
cent,  of  the  full  charge  at  first,  and  cautiously  permit  the 
air  still  remaining  to  escape  through  the  purging-cocks 
with  as  little  loss  of  gas  as  possible,  subsequently  inserting 
an  additional  quantity  of  ammonia  once  or  twice  a  day, 
until  all  the  air  has  been  got  rid  of  by  displacement,  and 
the  complete  charge  has  been  introduced. 

To  charge  the  machine,  the  dryer  or  dehydrator  of  the 
apparatus  for  manufacturing  or  generating  anhydrous  am- 
monia, or  where  no  such  apparatus  is  included  in  the 
installation,  the  drum  or  iron  or  steel  flask  of  anhydrous 
ammonia  should  be  connected,  through  a  suitable  pipe, 
to  the  charging  valve;  the  expansion  valve  must  be  then 
closed,  and  the  valve  communicating  with  the  dryer  or 
dehydrator,  or  that  in  the  flask  or  bottle,  opened.  The 
machine  should  be  run  at  a  slow  speed  when  sucking 
ammonia  from  the  drier,  or  whilst  the  flask  is  being 
emptied,  with  the  discharge  and  suction  valves  full  open. 


TESTING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  MACHINERY.     143 

In  the  latter  case,  when  one  of  the  said  flasks  or  bottles 
has  been  completely  emptied,  it  must  be  removed,  the 
charging- valve  having  been  first  closed,  and  another  placed 
in  position,  until  the  machine  is  sufficiently  charged  to 
work,  when  the  charging- valve  should  be  finally  closed, 
and  the  main  expansion  valve  opened  and  regulated.  A 
glass  gauge  upon  the  liquid  receiver  will  show  when 
the  latter  is  partially  filled,  and  the  pressure  gauges,  and 
the  gradual  cooling  of  the  brine  in  the  refrigerator  (in  the 
case  of  a  brine  circulation  or  ice-making  apparatus),  and 
the  expansion  pipe  leading  to  the  refrigerator  coils  becoming 
covered  with  frost,  indicate  when  a  sufficient  amount  to 
start  working  has  been  inserted. 

It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  slightly  warm  the  vessels 
or  bottles  containing  the  anhydrous  ammonia  by  means 
of  a  gas  jet,  or  in  some  other  convenient  manner,  whilst 
transferring  their  contents  to  the  machine,  as  otherwise, 
if  frost  forms  on  the  exterior  of  the  said  bottles,  they 
will  not  be  completely  discharged,  and  loss  of  ammonia 
will  ensue. 

The  flasks,  bottles,  or  other  receptacles  containing  the 
anhydrous  ammonia  should  be  always  kept  in  a  tolerably 
cool  and  a  perfectly  safe  situation,  and  they  should  more- 
over be  moved  and  handled  with  the  utmost  caution  and 
care. 

In  the  event  of  an  accident  occurring,  and  any  con- 
siderable quantity  of  the  ammonia  becoming  spilt,  it  is 
well  to  remember  that  it  is  so  extremely  soluble  in  water 
that  one  part  of  the  latter  at  a  temperature  of  60°  Fahr. 
will  absorb  some  800  parts  of  the  ammonia  gas,  therefore 
water  should  be  employed  to  kill  or  neutralise  it,  and  any 
person  attempting  to  penetrate  an  atmosphere  saturated 
with  this  gas  should  not  fail  to  place  a  cloth  well  saturated 
with  water  over  his  nose  and  mouth. 

The  machine  having  been  started,  and  the  regulating 
valve  opened,  it  is  essential  to  note  carefully  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  delivery  pipe  on  the  compressor,  and  if  it  shows 
a  tendency  to  heat,  then  the  said  regulating  valve  must  be 
opened  wider;  whilst,  on  the  contrary,  should  it  become 
cold,  this  valve  must  be  slightly  closed,  the  regulation 
or  adjustment  thereof  being  continued  until  the  normal 


144  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 

temperature  of  the  delivery  pipe  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
cooling  water  leaving  the  condenser.  When  the  charge  of 
ammonia  in  the  machine  is  insufficient,  the  delivery  pipe 
will  become  heated,  and  that  even  when  the  regulating 
valve  is  wide  open. 

There  are  many  additional  signs  of  the  healthy  working 
of  the  apparatus  other  than  the  fact  that  it  is  satisfactorily 
performing  its  proper  refrigerating  duty,  which  soon  become 
easily  recognisable  to  those  in  charge ;  for  example,  every 
stroke  of  the  piston  will  be  clearly  marked  by  a  corre- 
sponding vibration  of  the  pointers  or  indexes  of  the  pressure 
and  vacuum  gauges.  The  frost  visible  on  the  exterior  of 
the  ammonia  pipes  leading  to  and  from  the  refrigerator  will 
be  about  the  same.  The  liquid  ammonia  can  be  distinctly 
heard  passing  in  a  continuous  and  uninterrupted  stream 
through  the  regulating  valve.  The  temperature  of  the 
condenser  will  be  about  15°  higher  than  that  of  the  cooling 
water  running  from  the  overflow.  And  finally,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  refrigerator  will  be  about  15°  lower  than 
the  actual  temperature  of  the  brine  or  the  water  being 
cooled. 

Air  will  find  its  way  into  the  system  through  leaky 
stuffing-boxes,  improper  regulation  of  the  expansion  valve, 
etc.  Its  presence  in  any  considerable  volume  is  shown 
by  a  kind  of  whistling  noise,  the  liquid  ammonia  passing 
through  the  expansion  valve  in  an  intermittent  manner,  a 
rise  of  pressure  in  the  condenser,  and  also  loss  of  efficiency 
thereof,  and  other  obvious  signs.  In  this  case  the  above  air 
must  be  got  rid  of  through  the  purging-cocks  in  a  similar 
manner  to  that  which  remains  in  the  system  when  first 
charging  the  machine. 

The  presence  of  any  considerable  amount  of  oil  or  water 
in  the  system,  which  may  result  from  careless  distillation, 
will  cause  a  reduction  in  efficiency,  and  will  be  evidenced 
by  shocks  within  the  compressor  cylinder. 

The  temperature  can  be  regulated  either  by  running 
the  machine  at  a  higher  speed  or  by  increasing  the  back 
pressure,  or  by  a  combination  of  both.  The  back  pressure 
can  be  regulated  by  means  of  an  expansion  valve  or  valves 
fitted  between  the  receiver  and  the  refrigerator  evaporating 
coils  or  pipes  in  the  main  liquid  pipe. 


TESTING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  MACHINERY.      145 

LEAKS  IN  AMMONIA  APPARATUS. 

Leaks  are  readily  detected  by  the  smell  of  the  escaping 
ammonia  gas  when  the  machine  is  being  filled ;  at  a  later 
stage,  when  working,  their  detection  is  not  so  easy.  During 
the  operation  of  the  machine,  when  the  liquor  or  brine  in 
the  tanks  commences  to  smell  of  ammonia,  it  indicates  a 
considerable  leakage.  It  is  recommended  to  test  the 
liquor  or  brine  periodically  with  Nessler's  solution  or 
otherwise. 

Nessler's  reagent,  which  is  the  best  to  use  for  the  dis- 
covery of  traces  of  ammonia  in  water  or  brine,  consists  of 
17  grms.  of  mercuric  chloride  dissolved  in  about  300  cc. 
of  distilled  water,  to  which  are  added  35  grms.  potassium 
iodide  dissolved  in  100  cc.  of  water,  and  constantly  stirred 
until  a  slight  permanent  red  precipitate  is  produced.  To 
the  solution  thus  formed  are  added  120  grms.  of  potassium 
hydrate  dissolved  in  about  200  cc.  of  water,  allowed  to  cool 
before  mixing ;  the  amount  is  then  made  up  to  i  Itr.,  and 
mercuric  chloride  added  until  a  permanent  precipitate  again 
forms.  After  standing  for  a  sufficient  time,  the  clear 
solution  can  be  placed  in  glass-stoppered  blue  bottles  and 
kept  in  a  dark  place. 

If  a  few  drops  of  this  reagent  be  added  to  a  sample  of 
the  suspected  brine  or  water  in  a  test-tube,  or  other  small 
vessel,  and  the  slightest  trace  of  ammonia  is  present,  a 
yellow  colouration  of  the  liquid  will  take  place;  a  large 
quantity  of  ammonia  will  produce  a  dark-brown. 

When  the  leaks  are  comparatively  insignificant  they  can 
be  closed  in  the  usual  way,  by  solder,  using  as  a  flux 
muriatic  or  hydrochloric  acid  killed  with  zinc.  In  some 
instances  electric  welding  may  be  resorted  to  with  advantage, 
or  the  leak  may  be  closed  by  means  of  a  composition  of 
litharge  and  glycerine  mixed  into  a  stiff  paste,  bound  with 
sheet-rubber,  and  covered  with  sheet-iron  clamped  firmly  in 
position.  When,  however,  the  leak  is  at  all  serious,  it  is 
usually  the  better  plan  to  at  once  put  in  a  new  coil,  or  a 
new  length  of  pipe. 

LEAKS  IN  CARBONIC  ACID  MACHINES. 
To  detect  these,  smear  the  joints  with  a  solution  of  soap 
and  water,  and  any  leakage  of  gas  will  be  evidenced  by  the 


146  REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 

formation  of  bubbles.  Carbon  dioxide  or  carbonic  acid 
being  a  completely  inodorous  gas,  precautions  are  required 
to  prevent  the  unnoticed  occurrence  of  leakage. 

Before  closing  this  chapter,  a  few  words  upon  the  excess 
condensing  pressure  invariably  found  in  ammonia  com- 
pression machines  will  not  be  out  of  place.  This  excess 
of  the  actual  working  condensing  pressure  over  the  theo- 
retical is  caused  by  the  ammonia  gas  being  imprisoned  in 
the  comparatively  confined  space  afforded  by  the  coils  or 
pipes  in  the  refrigerator,  and  the  excess  pressure  is  more 
marked  in  a  horizontal  compressor  running  at  a  high  speed 
of,  say,  140  revolutions  per  minute,  than  it  is  in  vertical 
ones  having  only  a  tow  speed  of  from  35  to  60  revolutions 
per  minute;  it  varies,  moreover,  in  almost  every  make  of 
compressor.  At  a  low  suction  pressure  of  about  i5lbs.  it 
should  not  be  more  than  iolbs.,  but  with  a  suction  pressure 
of,  say,  27  or  28  Ibs.  it  may  rise  to  50  Ibs.,  or  even  more. 

The  condensing  pressure  affords  a  means  of  ascertaining 
whether  or  not  the  apparatus  contains  the  proper  full  charge 
of  ammonia,  or  if  the  losses  sustained  by  leakage  are 
sufficient  to  render  it  necessary  to  insert  an  additional 
supply.  For  this  reason  it  is  advisable  for  the  person  in 
charge  to  keep  a  record  in  a  proper  book,  suitably  ruled 
for  the  purpose,  of  the  temperature  of  the  condensed 
ammonia  when  leaving  the  condenser,  and  also  of  the 
condensing  and  suction  pressures,  at  regular  intervals  of, 
say,  three  hours.  This  will  enable  him  to  follow  the  state 
of  the  ammonia  charge;  for  example,  if  the  condensing 
pressure  is  found  to  be  gradually  falling  during  a  three 
months'  period,  as  compared  with  the  average  condensing 
pressure  of  the  previous  three  months,  whilst  at  the  same 
time  the  condensing  temperature  and  the  suction  pressure 
remain  constant,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  charge  of 
ammonia  has  become  reduced  by  leakage  to  a  sufficient 
extent  to  require  replenishing.  This  reduction  in  the 
condensing  pressure  is  caused  by  the  diminution  in  the 
charge  of  ammonia  giving  larger  condenser  space,  the  gas 
having  thus  a  much  more  extended  worm,  coil,  or  tube 
space  wherein  to  condense  and  liquefy,  and  hence  the 
decrease.  As  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  taken  that,  when- 
ever the  condensing  pressure  is  found  to  have  fallen  about 


TESTING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  MACHINERY.      147 

81bs.,  enough  ammonia  to  restore  the  original  condensing 
pressure  should  be  inserted  into  the  machine. 

LUBRICATION  OF  REFRIGERATING  MACHINERY. 

This  important  point  is  apt  to  be  as  much  neglected  by 
users  of  refrigerating  machinery  as  it  is  by  those  of  other 
types  of  machinery.  It  would  be  well  for  these  gentlemen 
to  at  once  dismiss  from  their  minds  the  idea  that  low-priced 
inferior  quality  oils  are  really  the  cheapest,  and  understand 
that,  on  the  contrary,  not  only  are  high-grade  oils  necessary 
to  ensure  the  .highest  efficiency  of  the  machinery,  but  that 
they  are  also  the  least  expensive  in  the  long  run. 

In  refrigerating  machinery  the  use  of  three  different  kinds 
of  oil  is  demanded,  viz.  steam  cylinder  oil ;  oil  for  general 
use  ;  and  compressor  pump  oil : — 

Oil  for  the  steam  cylinder.  Good  cylinder  oil  is  entirely 
free  from  grit,  does  not  gum  up  the  valves  and  cylinder, 
and  does  not  evaporate  rapidly  on  exposure  to  the  heat  of 
the  steam.  The  quality  of  a  cylinder  oil  is  demonstrated 
on  removal  of  the  cylinder  head.  If  the  oil  is  of  good 
quality,  the  wearing  surfaces  should  appear  well  coated  with 
lubricant,  which  will  not  show  a  gummy  deposit,  or  blacken 
on  the  application  of  clean  waste. 

Oil  for  general  use  on  all  the  bearings  and  wearing  surfaces 
of  the  machine  proper :  This  may  be  any  oil  that  will  not 
gum,  is  not  too  limpid,  possesses  a  good  body,  is  free  from 
grit  and  acids,  is  of  good  wearing  quality,  and  flows  freely 
from  the  oil-cups  at  a  fine  adjustment  without  a  tendency 
to  clog.  For  the  larger  bearings  it  is  well  to  use  a  heavier 
grade  of  oil. 

Oil  for  use  in  compressor  pumps :  This  should  be  what 
is  known  as  zero  oil,  or  cold  test  oil,  that  is  to  say,  it 
should  be  capable  of  withstanding  a  very  low  temperature 
without  freezing,  and  it  should  be  of  the  best  quality. 
American  makers  recommend  the  use  of  the  best  paraffin 
oil,  and  clear  West  Virginia  crude  oil 


148 


REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


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TESTING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  MACHINERY.      149 

LIGHTING  COLD  STORES. 

It  is  desirable  that  daylight  should  not  be  allowed  to  enter 
a  cold  store,  and  therefore  artificial  light  is  usually  resorted 
to,  electric  light  being  invariably  employed,  owing  to  there 
being  practically  an  absence  of  heat  therefrom. 

Incandescent  lamps  should  be  always  used  inside  the 
cold  stores,  but  arc  lamps  may  be  placed,  if  desired,  in  the 
engine-room,  and  employed  for  the  external  lighting  of  the 
premises.  Lower  voltage  lamps  are  the  most  durable,  and 
serve  the  purpose  quite  as  well  as  those  of  a  higher  voltage. 

The  mains  should  be  kept  as  far  as  practicable  in  the 
corridors,  and  tinned  cables  of  high  conductivity  and  with 
rubber  insulation  should  preferably  be  employed. 

Iron  piping,  steel  conduits,  or  wood  casing,  may  be  used 
for  carrying  the  main  cables,  the  latter  being  the  cheapest 
both  in  cost  of  material  and  in  fixing,  and  also  lending 
itself  more]  readily  to  any  subsequent  alterations  that  may 
become  necessary.  Steel  conduits,  however,  possess  several 
important  advantages.  The  steel-armoured  insulating  con- 
duit material  now  much  used  is  installed  in  a  similar  manner 
to  ordinary  gas-pipe  construction,  the  principal  difference 
in  electric  piping  being  that  specially  insulated  boxes, 
bends,  elbows,  etc.,  are  substituted  for  the  ordinary  tees  or 
angles  of  a  gas-pipe  system.  The  use  of  the  conduit  system 
ensures  a  mechanically  and  electrically  protective  duct  for 
the  installation  of  the  electric  conductors. 

When  wood  casing  is  used,  the  interior  should  be  painted 
with  asbestos  paint,  and  the  cover  fixed  with  brass  screws 
on  each  edge,  not  in  the  central  fillet. 

Iron  piping  has  an  internal  lining  of  suitable  insulating 
material,  and  is,  as  a  rule,  coated  with  a  bituminous  com- 
pound of  some  description  intended  to  act  as  a  preservative. 

There  are  two  systems  of  carrying  out  wiring  now  in  use, 
viz.  the  tree  system,  and  the  distributing-board  system. 

In  the  first  of  these,  or  the  tree  system,  two  main  cables 
are  carried  through  the  building,  the  branch  circuits  being 
all  taken  from  these  cables  or  mains.  In  the  second,  or 
distributing-board  system,  a  main  switchboard  is  placed  close 
to  the  dynamo,  from  which  main  switchboard  cables  are 
carried  to  supplementary  distributing  boards  located  at 
convenient  points,  from  which  the  lamps  are  wired. 


150  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 

An  obvious  advantage  of  this  latter  plan  is  that  all  the  joints 
are  readily  get-at-able,  being  at  the  distributing  boards  and 
fittings.  The  insulation  of  the  cable  is  left  completely  intact. 

In  fixing  wood  casing  all  joints  should  be  united,  and  no 
sharp  edges  or  corners  left  for  the  cable  to  pass  over.  The 
casing  is  ordinarily  secured  by  screws  to  the  walls,  floors, 
and  ceilings,  and  either  on  the  surface,  partially  sunk,  or 
sunk  flush  therewith.  In  very  damp  situations,  however, 
the  casing  should  be  supported,  so  as  to  be  clear  of  the 
surfaces,  by  means  of  small  porcelain  insulators. 

The  circuits  may  be  arranged  either  on  the  series  system  or 
on  the  parallel  arrangement,  the  latter  being  the  most  common, 
and  the  former  being,  as  a  rule,  only  employed  where  a  number 
of  arc  lamps  are  used.  The  series  circuit  and  parallel  circuit 
are  shown  in  the  diagrams  (Figs.  30  and  31),  the  dynamos, 
main  cables,  lamps,  and  switches  being  indicated  thereon. 

In  the  series  circuit  the  current  is  maintained  constant 
in  value,  the  difference  in  pressure  varying  with  the  work 
on  the  circuit. 

In  the  parallel  circuit  all  the  lamps  are  connected  as  separate 
paths  between  the  two  main  leads,  each  path  being  quite 
independent  of  the  other  paths.  The  difference  of  electrical 
pressure  is  maintained  constant,  the  current  varying  with  the 
work  that  is  on  the  circuit.  The  switching  off  of  a  lamp 
causes  a  break  in  the  wires  connecting  the  lamp  to  the  circuit. 


MAIN      CABLE 


FIG.  30.— Diagram  illustrating  Arrangement  of  Electric  Lighting  on  the 
Series  Circuit  System. 


CABLE. 


CABLE 


FIG.  31. — Diagram  illustrating  Arrangement  of  Electric  Lighting  on  the 
Parallel  Circuit  System. 


SECTION  VI. 

GENERAL    TABLES    AND    MEMORANDA. 
EXPERIMENTS  IN  WORT  COOLING. 

THE  following  tabulated  experiments  of  the  performance 
of  a  tubular  refrigerator  for  wort  cooling  are  gleaned  from 
Engineering.  The  water  and  wort  are  moved  in  opposite 
directions,  the  former  through  thin  metallic  tubes,  which 
are  surrounded  by  the  wort  to  be  cooled : — 


fi          ' 

WORT.                                         WATER. 

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Square  Feet. 

Bbls. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Bbls. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

Fahr. 

No.  i.  881 

— 

33'9 

212° 

72° 

140° 

61-1 

6.5° 

169" 

104° 

No.  2.  514 

i  -104 

36-1 

i.55 

59 

96 

75'5 

54 

100 

46 

No.  3.  514 

1-188 

36-6 

191 

59 

132 

99'5 

54 

100 

40 

No.  4.  514 

1-035 

47'3 

193 

59 

134 

90-7 

54 

100 

4b 

No.  5.  514 

1-018 

48-0 

178 

59 

119 

102-0 

54 

100 

46 

NOTE  I.— A  barrel  contains  thirty-six  gallons,  or  360  Ibs.  of  water. 
NOTE  2. — The  temperature  of  the  air  in  Nos.  2  and  4  was  44°  F.t 
and  in  Nos.  3  and  5,  40°  F. 


152 


REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  TENSION  OF  AQUEOUS  VAPOUR  IN 
MILLIMETRES  OF  MERCURY,  FROM  —30°  C.  TO  230°  C. 
—(Siebert.) 


Temp. 

Tension. 

Temp. 

Tension. 

Temp. 

Tension. 

Temp. 

Tension. 

-30° 

0'39 

„• 

18-5 

94'o° 

610-4 

104° 

876 

-25 

o'6i 

22 

197 

94*5 

622-2 

i°5 

907 

—  10 

0-9 

23 

20-9 

95*0 

633-8 

107 

972 

-15 

i'4 

24 

227 

95-5 

645-7 

no 

1,077 

—  10 

2'I 

25 

23-6 

96-0 

657-5 

"5 

1,273 

-5 

3'i 

26 

25*0 

96-5 

669-7 

1  20 

1,491 

—  2 

4-0 

27 

26-6 

97-0 

682-0 

125 

1,744 

—  I 

4*3 

28 

28-1 

97-5 

694-6 

130 

2,030 

0 

4-6 

29 

29-8 

98-0 

707-3 

135 

2,354 

I 

4'95 

30 

31-6 

98-5 

721-2 

140 

2,717 

2 

5*3 

35 

41-9 

99-0 

732-2 

US 

3,125 

3 

57 

40 

55-o 

99-1 

735'9 

150 

3,58i 

4 

6-1 

45 

7i'5 

99'2 

738-5 

155 

4,088 

5 

6-5 

5o 

92-0 

99-3 

741-2 

1  60 

4,55i 

6 

7-0 

55 

ii7'5 

99'4 

743-8 

165 

5,274 

7 

7'5 

60 

148-0 

99-5 

746-5 

170 

5,96i 

8 

8-0 

65 

186-0 

99-6 

749-2 

175 

6,717 

9 

8-6 

70 

232-0 

99-7 

75I-9 

1  80 

7,547 

10 

9-1 

75 

287*0 

99-8 

754-6 

185 

8,453 

ii 

97 

80 

354'Q 

99'9 

757-3 

190 

9,443 

12 

10-4 

85 

432-0 

loo-o 

760-0 

195 

10,520 

13 

'  u-i 

90 

525H 

lOO'I 

762-7 

200 

11,689 

H 

11-9 

90-5 

535-5 

100-2 

765-5 

205 

12,956 

15 

127 

91  -o 

545-8 

ioo"4 

772-0 

210 

M,325 

16 

13*5 

9i'5 

556-2 

100-6 

776-5 

215 

15,801 

17 

14-4 

92-0 

566-2 

lOI'O 

787-0 

220 

17,390 

18 
19 

It:] 

92-5 

93  -o 

577'S 
588-4 

102-0 

103-0 

816-0 
845-0 

225 
230 

19,097 
20,926 

20 

17-4 

93*5 

599'5 

DegreesC 120     134     144     152     159     171     180     190    213    235 

Atmospheres          2        3        4        5        6        8       10       15       20      25 


GENERAL  TABLES  AND  MEMORANDA. 


153 


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154  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 

TABLE  SHOWING  PROPERTIES  OF  SATURATED  STEAM. — Yaryan. 


Absolute  Pressure 
from  Vacuum. 

Above  Atmosphere. 

Tempera- 
ture. 

Deg.  Fahr. 

Total  Heat 
in 
British 
Units. 

Heat  of 
Vaporiza- 
tion 
or  Latent 
Heat. 

Ibs.per 
Square 
In. 

Inches 
of 
Mercury. 

Ibs.  per 
Square 
In. 

Inches 
of 

Mercury. 

I 

2-0355 

-I3-7 

-27-886 

101-99 

III3-I 

1043-0 

2 

4-0710 

-12-7 

-25-851 

126-27 

II20-5 

1026-1 

3 

6-1065 

-11-7 

-23-815 

141-62 

1125-1 

1015-3 

4 

8-142 

-10-7 

—  21-780 

I53-q9 

II28-6 

1007-2 

5 

10-178 

-9'7 

-I9-744 

162-34 

II3I-5 

iooo-8 

6 

12-213 

-8-7 

-I7-709 

170-14 

II33-8 

995-2 

7 

14-249 

-7'7 

-I5-673 

176-90 

II35'9 

990-5 

8 

16-284 

-6-7 

-I3-638 

182-92 

II37-7 

986-2 

9 

18-320 

-5'7 

—  I  I  -602 

188-33 

II39-4 

982-5 

10 

20-355 

-4'7 

-9'567 

I93-25 

II40-9 

979-0 

ii 

22-319 

-3'7 

-7-531 

I.97-78 

1142-3 

975-8 

12 

24-426 

-2-7 

-5-496 

201-98 

1143-6 

972-9 

13 

26-462 

-1-7 

-3-460 

205-89 

II44-7 

970-1 

14 

28-497 

-07 

-1-425 

20^-57 

II45-8 

967-5 

I47 

29-922 

o-o 

O'OOO 

212-00 

1146-6 

965-8 

15 

30-533 

0-3 

0-611 

213-03 

1146-9 

965-1 

16 

32-568 

i'3 

2-646 

2I6-32 

II47-9 

962-8 

17 

34-604 

2'3 

4-682 

219-44 

1148-9 

960-6 

18 

36-639 

3'3 

6-717 

222-40 

II49-8 

958-5 

19 

38-675 

4'3 

8-753 

225-24 

II50-7 

956-6 

20 

40-710 

5'3 

10-788 

227-95 

II5I-5 

954-6 

21 

42-746 

6-3 

12-824 

230'55 

II52-3 

:  952-8 

22 

44-781 

7'3 

I4-859 

233-06 

II53-0 

951-0 

23 

46-787 

8-3 

I5-895 

235-47 

II53-7 

949-2 

24 

48-852 

9'3 

18-930 

237-79 

II54-4 

947-6 

25 

50-888 

10-3 

20-966 

240-04 

H55'1 

946-0 

26 

52-923 

11-3 

23-007 

242-2I 

1155-8 

944-6 

27 

54-972 

12-3 

25-043 

244-32 

ii56-5 

943-1 

28 

57-oo8 

I3-3 

27-079 

246-36 

1157-1 

941-7 

29 

59-044 

I4-3 

29-115 

248-34 

ii57-7 

940-3 

30 

61-080 

I5-3 

3IT43 

250-27 

1158-3 

938-9 

31 

63-116 

16-3 

33-I87 

252-I5 

1158-8 

937-5 

32 

65-152 

I/-3 

35-223 

253-98 

II59-4 

936-3 

33 

67-188 

18-3 

37-239 

255-76 

II59-9 

935'° 

34 

69-224 

I9-3 

39-295 

257-50 

1160-4 

933-7 

35 

71-260 

20-3 

41-321 

259-19 

1161-0 

932-6 

36 

73-296 

21-3 

43-367 

260-85 

1161-5 

93I-5 

37 

75-33I 

22-3 

45-3!9 

262-47 

1162-0 

930-3 

38 

77-367 

23-3 

47-397 

264-06 

1162-5 

929-2 

39 

79-403 

24-3 

50-463 

265-61 

1163-0 

928-2 

GENERAL  TABLES  AND  MEMORANDA.         1 55 


TABLE  SHOWING  PROPERTIES  OF  SATURATED  STEAM.— Yaryan.- 
Continued. 


Absolute  Pressure 
from  Vacuum. 

Above  Atmosphere. 

Tempera- 
ture. 

Deg.  Fahr. 

Total  Heat 
in 
British 

Units. 

Heat  of 
Vaporiza- 
tion 
or  Latent 
Heat. 

Ibs.per 
Square 
In. 

Inches 
of 
Mercury. 

Ibs.  per 
Square 
In. 

Inches 
of 
Mercury, 

40 

81-439 

25-3 

5!'499 

267-13 

1163-4 

927-0 

41 

83*475 

26-3 

53-534 

268-62 

1163-9 

926-0 

42 

85-5II 

270-08 

1164-3 

925-0 

43 

87;547 

28-3 

57*619 

27I*5I 

1164-8 

924-0 

44 

S9'655 

272-91 

1165-2 

923-0 

45 

91-619 

30-3 

61-691 

1165*6 

922-0 

46 

93-655 

63-727 

275-65 

Il66*O 

92I-O 

47 

95-691 

32-3 

65-763 

276-99 

1166-4 

920-1 

48 

97*727 

33-3 

67-799 

278-30 

II66-8 

919-2 

49 

99-763 

34-3 

69-835 

279-58 

II67-2 

918-3 

50 

101-799 

35-3 

71-871 

280-85 

Il67*6 

917-4 

55 

111-98 

40-3 

82-050 

286-89 

1169-4 

913-1 

60 

122-16 

45-3 

92-230 

292-51 

II7I-2 

909-3 

65 

I32-34 

50-3 

102-410 

297-77 

II72-7 

905-5 

70 

142-52 

55-3 

112-59 

302-71 

"74*3 

9O2T 

75 

152-70 

60-3 

122-77 

307-38 

ii75*7 

898-8 

80 

162-88 

65*3 

132-95 

3II-80 

1177-0 

895*6 

85 

173-06 

7°'3 

I43-I3 

316-02 

1178-3 

892*5 

90 

185-24 

75*3 

I53-3I 

320-04 

1179-6 

889-6 

95 

I93H2 

80-3 

163-49 

323-89 

1180-7 

886*7 

100 

203-06 

85-3 

173-67 

327*58 

1181-9 

884-0 

105 

213-78 

90-3 

185-85 

33I-I3 

1182-9 

881-3 

no 
"5 

223-96 

95-3 
100-3 

194-03 
203-67 

334-56 

337-86 

1184-0 
1185-0 

878-8 
876-3 

120 

244-32 

105-3 

214-39 

34I-05 

1186-0 

874-0 

125 
130 

254-50 
264-68 

110-3 
"5*3 

224-57 
234-75 

344*13 
347-12 

1186-9 
1187-8 

871*7 
869-4 

135 

274-86 

120-3 

244-93 

350-03 

1188-7 

867-3 

140 

285-04 

125-3 

352*85 

1189-5 

865-1 

H5 

295-22 

130-3 

265-29 

355-59 

1190-4 

863-2 

150 

305-40 

I35-3 

275-47 

358-26 

1191-2 

861*2 

1  60 

325*76 

145-3 

295-83 

363-40 

1192-8 

857-4 

170 

345-82 

I55-3 

316-19 

368-29 

"94*3 

853*8 

180 

366-48 

165-3 

336-55 

372-97 

"95*7 

850-3 

190 

386-84 

I75-3 

356-91 

377-44 

1197-1 

847-0 

200 

407-20 

185-3 

377-27 

1198-4 

843-8 

56 


REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


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GENERAL  TABLES  AND  MEMORANDA.         157 


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GENERAL  TABLES  AND   MEMORANDA. 


159 


HEAT  OF  COMBUSTION  OF  VARIOUS  FUELS. 


Equivalent 

Total 

Evaporative 

Air  Chemically 

Heat  of 

Power,  from 

Fuel. 

Consumed 

Combustion 

and  at  212° 

per  Ib.  of  Fuel. 

of  i  Ib. 

F.,  Water 

of  Fuel. 

per  Ib.  oi 

Fuel. 

Ibs. 

Cub  Ft. 
at  62° 

Units. 

Ibs. 

F. 

Asphalt 

11-85 

156 

17,040 

17-64 

Coal  of  average  composition 

107 

140 

14,700 

15-22 

Coke    

I0-8l 

142 

I3.548 

14-02 

Lignite 

8-85 

146 

13,108 

!3'57 

Peat,  desiccated 

7-52 

99 

12,279 

12-71 

Peat,  30  per  cent,  moisture.  . 
Peat  charcoal,  desiccated     .  . 

5-24 
9'9 

69 
130 

8,260 

12,325 

9'53 
12-76 

Petroleum      ..         ..       ^.. 

I4'33 

188 

20,411 

21-13 

Petroleum  oils 

I7-93 

235 

27,531 

28-50 

Straw  

4-26 

56 

8,144 

8'43 

Wood  charcoal,  desiccated  .  . 

9'5  I 

I25 

13,006 

J3'46 

Wood,  desiccated 

6-09 

80 

10,974 

11-36 

Wood,  25  per  cent,  moisture 

4'57 

60 

7,95i 

8-20 

Coal  gas,  per  cubic  foot  at 

62°  F  

~ 

~ 

630 

0-70 

PERCENTAGES,  HANDY  RULE. 

Regard  percentages  as  a  decimal  fraction,  and  with  it 
multiply  the  whole  number  wanted.  For  example,  16 
per  cent,  of  80  is  80  X  0-16  =  12 '8. 


l6o  REFRIGERATION  AND  ICE-MAKING. 

SPECIFIC  HEAT  OF  WATER  AT  VARIOUS  TEMPERATURES. 


Units  of  Heat 

Units  of  Heat 

Tempera- 
ture. Dee. 
Fahr. 

Specific 
Heat. 

required  to 
raise  i  Ib.  of 
Water  from 
32°  F.  to  given 

Tempera- 
ture. Deg. 
Fahr. 

Specific 
Heat. 

required  to 
raise  i  Ib.  of 
Water  from 
32°  F.  to  given 

Temperature. 

Temperature. 

32° 

•oooo 

O'OOO 

248° 

I-OI77 

217-449 

50 

•0005 

I8-004 

266 

"O2O4 

235791 

68 

'OOI2 

36-018 

284 

•0232 

254-187 

86 

'OO2O 

54*047 

3O2 

"0262 

272-628 

104 

•0030 

72-090 

320 

•0294 

291*132 

122 

•OO42 

90-I57 

338 

•0328 

309-690 

140 

•0056 

I08-247 

356 

•0364 

328-320 

158 

•0072 

126-378 

374 

'0401 

347-004 

I76 

•0089 

144-508 

392 

•0440 

365-760 

I94 

•0109 

I62-686 

410 

•0481 

384-588 

212 

I-OI30 

180-900 

428 

•0524 

403-488 

230 

I'OI53 

I99-I52 

446 

•0568 

422-478 

SPECIFIC  HEAT  OF  METALS,  ETC. 


METALS. 

STONES  (contd.) 

Antimony 
Bismuth 

0-0507 
0*0308 

Chalk 
Quicklime 

0-2148 
0*2169 

Brass 

0-0939 

Magnesian  limestone 

0*2174 

Copper 

0-0951 

Cymbal  metal 

0*086 

Gold  

0-0324 

CARBONACEOUS. 

Iridium 
Iron,  cast 
„     wrought 

0-1887 
0-1298 
0*1138 

Coal  
Charcoal 
Cannel  coke 

0*2411 
0*2415 
0*2031 

Lead  
Manganese     .. 
Mercury,  solid 
liquid 
Nickel 

0-0314 
0-1441 
0-0319 
0-0333 
o'io86 

Coke  of  pit  coal 
Anthracite 
Graphite,  natural     .  . 
,,     of  blast  furnaces 

0*2008 
0*2017 
0-2019 
0*197 

Platinum,  sheet 

0-0324 

„          spongy      .  . 

0*0329 

Silver 

0-0570 

SUNDRY. 

Steel  

0-1165 

Glass  

0*1977 

Tin     

0*0569 

Ice     

0*504 

Zinc    

0-0959 

Phosphorus 

0-2503 

Soda  

0-2311 

STONES. 

Sulphate  of  lead      .  . 

0*0872 

Brickwork  &  masonry 

0'20 

,,         of  lime 

0-1966 

Marble 

0*2129 

Sulphur 

0-2026 

GENERAL  TABLES  AND  MEMORANDA. 


161 


SPECIFIC  HEAT  OF  LIQUIDS. 


Alcohol 

0-6588 

Turpentine    .  . 

0*4160 

Benzine          .  . 

0-3932 

Vinegar 

0-9200 

Mercury 

0-0333 

Water  at  3  2°  F. 

I'OOOO 

Olive  oil 

0-3096 

„         212°  F.        . 

1-0130 

Sulphuric  acid 

„          32°t02I2°F 

1-0050 

Density,  1-87 
I-30 

0-3346 
0-6614 

Wood  spirit  .  . 
Proof  spirit  .  . 

0*6009 
0-973 

SPECIFIC  HEAT  OF  GASES. 


For  Equal  Weights.    (Water  =  i.) 

At  Constant 
Pressure. 

At  Constant 
Volume. 

Air 

0-2377 

0-1688 

Carbonic  acid  (CO2) 

0*2164 

0-1714 

„       oxide  (CO) 

0-2479 

0-1768 

Hydrogen 

3-4046 

2-4096 

Light  carburetted  hyd 

ogen 

0-5929 

0-4683 

Nitrogen 

0*2440 

0-1740 

Oxygen 

0-2I82 

0-1559 

Steam,  saturated 

— 

0-3050 

Steam  gas 

0-4750 

0-3700 

Sulphurous  acid 

0-1553 

0*1246 

BRITISH  THERMAL  UNIT,  OR  HEAT  UNIT. 

Amount  of  heat  necessary  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
i  Ib.  of  water  i°  by  the  Fahr.  scale  when  at  39*4°  (temp,  of 
max.  density).  Mech.  eq.  778  ft.-lbs. 


FRENCH  CALORIE,  ENGLISH  EQUIVALENT. 

Unit  of  heat  used  on  the  Continent  with  the  metrical 
system.  Amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  i  kilo,  of  water 
through  i°  Cent.  B.T.U.  X  0-252  =  calorie.  Calories 
X  3-968  =  B.T.U. 


162 


REFRIGERATION   AND  ICE-MAKING. 


Loss  OF  PRESSURE  BY  FRICTION  OF  COMPRESSED  AIR  IN  PIPES. 
F.  A.  Halsey. 


'A 

Cubic  feet  of  Free  Air  compressed  to  a  Gauge  Pressure  of  60  Ibs.  per 
Square  Inch  and  passing  through  the  Pipe  per  Minute. 

o 

50 

75 

100 

125 

ISO 

200 

250 

300 

400  I  600 

rt 

3 

Loss  of  Pressure  in  Pounds  per  Square  Inch  for  each  1,000  Feet  of 
Straight  Pipe. 

ins. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

I 

10-40 

jl 

2-6^ 

5  '90 

l| 

1-22 

275 

4-89 

7-65 

II'OO 

2 

•35 

79 

1-41 

2'2O 

3'17 

5-64 

878 

2\ 

•14 

•32 

'57 

•90 

1-29 

2-30 

3-58 

5'i8 

9'20 

3 

•ii 

•20 

•31 

•44 

78 

1-23 

177 

3*14 

7-05 

3^ 

•15 

•21 

"38 

'59 

"85 

i*5* 

3*40 

4 

•2O 

'45 

•80 

1-81 

1 

•10 

•15 

•26 

•59 
•23 

FRICTION  OF  AIR  IN  TUBES.—  Unwin,  "  Min.  Proceedings  Inst.  C.E? 

k  =  coefficient  of  friction  =  -  +  b,  a  and  b  being  constants,  and 
v  =  velocity  of  air  feet  per  second. 


Diameter  of  tube,  ft. 

1-64 

1-07 

*3 

•338 

•266 

•164 

Value  of  a 

•00129 

•00972 

•01525 

•03604 

•0379 

•04518 

„».....- 

•00483 

•0064 

•00704 

•00941 

•00959 

•01167 

„        £ifz>=ioo 

•00484 

•0065 

•00719 

•00719 

•00997 

•OI2I2 

GENERAL   TABLES   AND   MEMORANDA.          163 

COEFFICIENTS  FOR  EFFLUX  OF  AIR  FROM  ORIFICES. 

(Molesworth). 

Vena  contracta         .         .         .  .  0-98 

Conical  converging .         .         ...         ;  0-9 

Cylindrical  rounded  at  ends     .         .         *  0*9 

Cylindrical  throughout     .         . '        .         ,  o'8 

Thin  plates o'6 


CENTRIFUGAL  FANS.  —  Molesworth. 

D  =  Diameter  of  fan. 

V  =  Velocity  of  tips  of  fan  in  feet  per  second. 

P  =  Pressure  in  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

V=  v/P  X  973°°- 


97300 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  FANS. — Molesworth 

P  =  Pressure  of  blast  in  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

A  =  Area  of  the  sum  of  the  tuyeres  in  square  inches. 

V  =  Velocity  of  tips  of  fan  in  feet  per  second. 
HP  =  Indicated  horse-power  required. 
HP  =  0-000016  V2  A  P. 


PROPORTIONS  OF  FANS. — Molesworth. 
Length  of  vanes  —  — •  Width  of  vanes  =  — • 
Diameter  of  inlet  =  — •  Eccentricity  of  fan  =  — • 

2  10 

Length  of  spindle  journal  =  4  diameters  of  spindle. 


164 


REFRIGERATION    AND   ICE-MAKING. 


HYDRAULIC  RAM  PROPORTIONS  OF  THE  SUPPLY  PIPES  AND 
DELIVERY  PIPES  TO  THE  NUMBER  OF  GALLONS. — (Hutton.) 


Number  of   gallons   to  be 

raised  in  24  hours  .     .     . 

500 

1,000 

2,500 

4,000 

6,000 

Diameter  of  fall  or  supply 

pipe,  in  inches  .... 

I* 

2 

2£ 

3 

4 

Diameter  of  rising  main  or 

delivery  pipe,  in  inches  . 

1 

I 

I| 

2 

2 

EFFICIENCY  OF  HYDRAULIC  RAMS. — (Hutton) 


Number    of   times    the 

height  to  which  the 

water  to  be  raised  is 

contained  in  the  fall  . 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

ii 

12 

13 

*4 

15 

16 

18 

19 

20 

25 

Efficiency  per  cent.  .    . 

75 

72 

68 

62 

57 

53 

48 

43 

38 

35 

32 

28 

23 

17 

15 

13 

0 

POWER   REQUIRED   TO   DRIVE   CENTRIFUGAL   PUMPS. 


Diameter  of  suction 
and  delivery  pipes 
in  inches. 

Quantity  of  water 
delivered  per 
minute,  in  gallons. 

Horse-power 
required  for  every 
foot  in  height  the 
water  is  raised. 

I 

16 

O'OI 

2 

50 

O'O2 

3 

IOO 

O'O5 

4 

200 

0'08 

300 

o'i6 

6 

500 

0-25 

I 

7OO 
800 

o'35 
0-40 

9 

I,OOO 

°'5° 

10 

1,500 

075 

ii 

1,  800 

•o 

12 

2,000 

•01 

13 

2,3OO 

•08 

H 

2,500 

*2O 

15 

3,OOO 

•31 

16 

3.500 

•60 

17 

3,800 

75 

18 

4,200 

2'0 

TABLE  OF  POWER  REQUIRED  TO  RAISE  WATER  FROM  DEEP 
WELLS.— (Appleby.) 


Gallons  of  water  raised  per  hour  . 

200 

350 

500 

650 

800 

1,000 

Height  of  lift  for  one  man  work- 

ing on  crank,  in  feet  .... 

90 

S2 

36 

28 

22 

18 

Height   of   lift  for   one   donkey 

working  on  gin,  in  feet  .     .     . 

1  80 

1  02 

72 

56 

45 

36 

Height  of  lift  for  one  horse  work- 

ing on  gin,  in  feet      .... 

630 

357 

252 

I96 

154 

126 

Height  of  lift  for  one  horse-power 

steam-engine,  in  feet  .... 

990 

56. 

396 

308 

242 

198 

TABLE  GIVING  QUANTITY  OF  WATER  DISCHARGED  PER 
MINUTE  BY  BARREL  PUMPS. — (Hutton.} 


Diam. 
of 
pump. 

Length 
of 
stroke. 

Single  barrel. 

Double  barrel. 

Treble  barrel. 

30  strokes 
per  min. 

40  strokes 
per  min. 

30  strokes 
per  min. 

40  strokes 
per  min. 

30  strokes 
per  min. 

40  strokes 
per  min. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Galls. 

Galls. 

Galls. 

Galls. 

Galls. 

Galls. 

ii 

9 

If 

2j 

3i 

4* 

4* 

6| 

2 

9 

3 

4 

6 

8 

9 

12 

*i 

9 

4f 

61 

9* 

12 

H 

19 

3 

9 

ft 

9 

i|i 

18 

20 

27 

3i 

9 

9* 

izi 

i8f 

25 

28 

37 

4 

9 

12* 

16 

24^ 

S2 

36 

48 

4£ 

9 

15* 

20| 

32 

42 

46 

62 

5 

9 

19 

25! 

38 

50 

57 

76 

\\ 

9 

23i 

32 

46£ 

62 

69 

92 

6 

9 

27i 

37 

55 

73 

82 

no 

2 

10 

3£ 

4£ 

6 

9 

10 

13 

2£ 

10 

.5* 

7 

10 

14 

15 

22 

3 

10 

71 

10 

15 

20 

22 

30 

3£ 

10 

i  of 

i3l 

20 

27 

32 

42 

4 

10 

13* 

1  8 

27 

36 

40 

54 

4£ 

10 

17 

23 

34 

45 

52 

68 

5 

10 

22 

28 

42 

56 

63 

84 

5£ 

10 

•Si 

34 

51 

68 

77 

102 

6 

10 

30* 

40 

62 

82 

92 

122 

2 

12 

4 

5 

8 

10 

12 

16 

2£ 

12 

6* 

8 

12 

17 

19 

25 

3 

12 

9 

12 

18 

24 

27 

36 

3^ 

12 

12* 

16 

24 

33 

37 

5° 

4 

12 

i6i 

22 

32 

43 

49 

65 

4i 

12 

20£ 

27 

42 

55 

62 

82 

5 

12 

25i 

33 

50 

68 

76 

IOO 

5* 

12 

3°i 

42 

62 

82 

92 

123 

6 

12 

361 

49 

73 

97 

no 

146 

6£ 

12 

43 

57 

86 

114 

129 

172 

7 

12 

50 

66 

100 

134 

149 

199 

7£ 

12 

57 

76 

114 

152 

171 

229 

8 

12 

65 

87 

130 

174 

195 

262 

9 

12 

82 

no 

165 

220 

246 

330 

10 

12 

102 

134 

202 

268 

303 

404 

12 

12 

146 

195 

294 

390 

440 

588 

DIAMETERS,  AREAS,  AND  DISPLACEMENTS. 

Worthington  Pumping  Engine  Company. 


Diameter. 

S 

Displacement 
in  Imperial 
Gallons  per 
foot  of  Travel  . 

Diameter. 

d 

8 

<J 

Displacement 
in  Imperial 
Gallons  per 
foot  of  Travel  . 

Diameter. 

rt 
1 
<| 

jj-aSl 

6'C  &rt 
<V  4>   in   >-; 

§|§£ 

Tre^S 

Q-SOJ 

•0122 

•OOO5 

71 

41-28 

I-783 

26I-5 

11-297 

•0490 

•0021 

7} 

44-17 

1-908 

268-8 

11-612 

•IIO4 

•0047 

71 

47-17 

2-037 

276-1 

11-927 

•1963 

•0084 

8 

50-26 

2-I7I 

19 

283-5 

12-247 

•3068 

•0132 

8¥ 

53-45 

2-309 

i9i 

291-0 

12-571 

•4417 

•0190 

8| 

56-74 

2-451 

19! 

298-6 

12-900 

I 

•6013 

•0259 

8? 

60-13 

2-597 

I9f 

306-3 

13-232 

•7854 

•0339 

9 

63-61 

2-747 

20 

3H'1 

13-569 

4- 

•0940 

•0429 

67-20 

2-903 

20| 

33o-o 

14-256 

i 

1-227 

•0530 

91 

70-88 

Vo62 

21 

346'3 

14-960 

| 

1-484 

•0641 

9f 

74-66 

3-225 

2I| 

363-o 

15-681 

i 

1-767 

•0763 

10 

78-54 

3-393 

22 

380-1 

16-420 

| 

2-073 

•0895 

I0f 

82-51 

3-564 

22J 

397-6 

17-176 

If 

2-405 

•1038 

10^- 

86-59 

3-740 

23 

4I5-4 

17-945 

'$ 

2-761 

•1192 

iof 

90-76 

3-920 

23i 

433-7 

18-735 

2 

3'I4I 

T356 

II 

95-03 

4-105 

24 

452-3 

19-539 

2i 

3'546 

•1531 

JIi 

99-40 

4-294 

24i 

4/I%4 

20-364 

2i 

3-976 

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103-8 

4-484 

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490-8 

2I-2O2 

2f 

4-430 

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ii| 

108-4 

4-682 

25i 

510-7 

22*062 

2\ 

4-908 

•2120 

12 

113-0 

4-881 

26 

530-9 

22-935 

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5-4" 

•2337 

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117-8 

5-o88 

26| 

551-5 

23-824 

2| 

5-939 

•25<>5 

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122-7 

5-300 

27 

572-5 

24-732 

21 

6-491 

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127-6 

5-5I2 

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593-9 

25-656 

3 

7-068 

•3053 

13 

1327 

5-732 

28 

615-7 

26-598 

3i 

7-669 

•3313 

i3i 

137-8 

5-952 

28J 

637-9 

27-567 

si 

8-295 

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J3£ 

H3'i 

6-182 

29 

660-5 

28-533 

3t 

8-946 

•3864 

'3f 

148-4 

6-410 

29| 

683-4 

29-522 

3i 

9-62I 

'4^6 

H 

'53*9 

6-649 

30 

706-8 

30>533 

3f 

IO-32 

•4458 

*ti 

'59*4 

6-886 

31 

754-8 

32-607 

3f 

II-O4 

•4769 

i4i 

165-1 

7-132 

32 

804-2 

34741 

3i 

11-79 

•5193 

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170-8 

7-388 

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855-3 

36-949 

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12-56 

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176-7 

7-633 

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907-9 

39-221 

4i 

14-18 

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182-6 

7-888 

35 

962-1 

41-562 

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15-90 

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188-6 

8-147 

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1017-9 

43-973 

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17-72 

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isl 

194-8 

8-4I5 

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1075-2 

46-448 

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19-63 

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2OI-O 

8-683 

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1134-1 

48-993 

5; 

21-54 

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1  61 

207-3 

8-955 

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1194-6 

51-607 

5^ 

2375 

1-026 

i6i 

213-8 

9-236 

40 

1256-6 

54-259 

Sf 

25-96 

•121 

i6f 

220-3 

9-516 

41 

1320-3 

57-037 

6 

28-27 

•221 

17 

226-9 

9-802 

42 

1385-4 

59-849 

oi 

30-67 

•325 

171 

233-7 

10-095 

43 

1452-2 

62-735 

6| 

33-i8 

•433 

J7£ 

240-5 

10-389 

44 

1520-5 

65-686 

6|- 

35-78 

'545 

»7f 

247-4 

10-687 

45 

T590-4 

68-688 

7 

38-48 

•662 

18 

254-4 

10-990 

46 

1661-9 

71-794 

In  estimating  the  capacity  of  Worthington  (and  other  duplex)  Pumps 
(i.e.,  the  delivery  in  gallons  per  minute  or  per  hour)  at  a  given  rate  of 
piston  speed,  it  should  be  noted  that  they  have  two  double-acting  water 
plungers :  the  capacity,  therefore,  is  double  that  of  any  ordinary  double- 
acting  pump  of  same  size,  or  four  times  as  large  as  a  single-acting  pump. 


PRESSURE  OF  WATER. 
Worthington  Pumping  Engine  Company. 

The  pressure  of  water  in  pounds  per  square  inch  for  every  foot  in  height 
to  270  ft.  By  this  Table,  from  the  pounds  pressure  per  square  inch  the 
feet  head  is  readily  obtained,  and  -vice  -versa. 


Feet  Head, 

Pressure 
per  sq.  in. 

|  Feet  Head.  | 

Pressure 
per  sq.  in. 

Feet  Head. 

Pressure 
per  sq.  in. 

Feet  Head. 

Pressure 
per  sq.  in. 

1 

W 
"3 
& 

Pressure 
per  sq.  in. 

Feet  Head. 

Pressure 
per  sq.  in. 

I 

o-43 

46 

19-92 

91 

39H2 

136 

58-9I 

181 

78-40 

226 

97-90 

M 

0-86 

47 

20-35 

92 

39-85 

137 

59-34 

182 

78-84 

227 

98-33 

3 

1-30 

48 

2079 

93 

40*28 

138 

59-77 

183 

79-27 

228 

98-76 

4 

i-73 

49 

21'22 

94 

40-72 

139 

6O'  2  I 

184 

79-70 

229 

99-20 

5 

2-16 

50 

21-65 

95 

4I-I5 

140 

60-64 

J85 

80-I4 

230 

99-63 

6 

2-59 

51 

22-09 

96 

4I-58 

141 

6l-07 

1  86 

80-57 

23I 

100-06 

7 

3-03 

52 

22-52 

97 

42-01 

I42 

61-51 

187 

8roo 

232 

100-49 

8 

3-46 

53 

22-95 

98 

42-45 

143 

61-94 

188 

8i-43 

233 

100-93 

q 

3-89 

54 

23*39 

99 

42-83 

144 

62-37 

189 

81-87 

234 

101-36 

10 

4-33 

55 

23-82 

IOO 

43-31 

145 

62-8I 

190 

82-30 

235 

101-79 

ii 

4-76 

56 

24-26 

101 

43-75 

146 

63-24 

191 

82-73 

236 

102-23 

12 

5-20 

57 

24-69 

IO2 

44-18 

147 

63-67 

192 

83-17 

237 

102-66 

13 

5-63 

58 

25-12 

103 

44-61 

148 

64-10 

193 

83-60 

238 

103-09 

H 

6-06 

59 

25-55 

104 

45"°5 

149 

64*54 

194 

84-03 

239 

I03-53 

15 

6-49 

60 

25-99 

105 

45-48 

15° 

64-97 

195 

84-47 

240 

103-96 

16 

6-93 

61 

26-42 

1  06 

45-9I 

151 

65-49 

196 

84-90 

241 

104-39 

I7 

7-36 

62 

26-85 

107 

46-34 

IS2 

65-84 

197 

85-33 

242 

104-83 

18 

7-79 

63 

27-29 

1  08 

46-78 

153 

66-27 

198 

85-76 

243 

105-26 

19 

8-22 

64 

27-72 

109 

47-21 

*54 

66-70 

199 

86-20 

244 

105-69 

20 

8-66 

65 

28-15 

1  10 

47-64 

155 

67-14 

200 

86-63 

245 

106-13 

21 

,9-09 

66 

28-58 

III 

48-08 

IS6 

67-57 

2OJ 

87'07 

246 

106-56 

22 

9-53 

67 

29-02 

112 

48-51 

157 

68-00 

202 

87-50 

247 

106-99 

23 

9-96 

68 

29-45 

H3 

48-94 

158 

68-43 

203 

87-93 

248 

107-43 

24 

10-39 

69 

29-88 

II4 

49-38 

159 

68-87 

204 

88-36 

249 

107-86 

25 

10-82 

70 

30-32 

H5 

49-81 

1  60 

69-31 

205 

88-80 

250 

108-29 

26 

11-26 

71 

3°75 

lib 

50*24 

161 

69-74 

206 

89-23 

251 

108-73 

27 

11-69 

72 

3I-I8 

117 

50-68 

162 

70-17 

207 

89-66 

252 

109-16 

28 

12-12 

73 

3I-62 

118 

51-11 

163 

70-61 

208 

90-10 

253 

109-59 

29 

12-55 

74 

32-05 

119 

5f54 

164 

71-04 

209 

90-53 

254 

110-03 

30 

12-99 

75 

32-48 

120 

51-98 

165 

71-47 

210 

90-96 

255 

110-46 

31 

13-42 

76 

32-92 

121 

52-41 

1  66 

71-91 

211 

9I-39 

256 

110-89 

32 

13-86 

77 

33*35 

122 

52-84 

167 

72-34 

212 

91-83 

257 

111-32 

33 

14-29 

78 

33-78 

I23 

53-28 

168 

72-77 

213 

92*26 

258 

111-76 

34 

14-72 

79 

34-21 

124 

53-71 

169 

73-20 

214 

92-69 

259 

112-19 

35 

15-16 

80 

34^5 

125 

54-I5 

170 

73-64 

215 

93-I3 

260 

112-62 

36 

t5-59 

81 

35-08 

126 

54-58 

171 

74-07 

216 

93-56 

26l 

113-06 

37 

16-02 

82 

35-52 

127 

55'01 

172 

74-50 

217 

93-99 

262 

II3-49 

38 

16-45 

83 

35-95 

128 

55'44 

J73 

74-94 

218 

94'43 

263 

113-92 

39 

16-89 

^ 

3639 

129 

55-88 

174 

75-37 

219 

94-86 

264 

114-36 

40 

17-32 

85 

36-82 

I30 

56-31 

175 

75-80 

220 

95-30 

265 

114-79 

4i 

17-75 

86 

37-25 

131 

56-74 

176 

76-23 

221 

95-73 

266 

115-22 

42 

18-19 

87 

37-68 

132 

57-i8 

177 

76-67 

222 

96-16 

267 

115-66 

43 

18-62 

88 

38-12 

133 

57-61 

178 

77-10 

223 

96-59 

268 

116-09 

44 

19-05 

89 

38-55 

134 

58-04 

179 

77-53 

224 

97-03 

269 

116-52 

45 

19-49 

90 

39-98 

135 

58-48 

1  80 

77*97 

225 

97-46 

270 

116-96 

168 


REFRIGERATION   AND   ICE-MAKING. 


DIMENSIONS,  ETC.,  OF  STANDARD  WROUGHT-!RON  PIPES. 


a 

4 

rt      . 

£-£ 

t  S 
B'.S 

.5 

e 

L 

£  • 

)-,   V 

P.1 

| 

•a 
I 

•L 

Jj 

-0^2 

Si 

.2.3 

.2  2 

II 

•Jj 

.11 

0—1 

<u  o  o3 

(*4 

M 

ii 

•p 

*• 

"°  M 

•°  a 

IJ 

P 

1*2 

^£^  S 

•I-5 

•—  >-f 

o 

£2 

rs  ^ 

rs  *T> 

^ 

£ 

(D    G 

r^  c5 

'S 

c 

* 

t—  » 

»S  " 

-i 

H 

l_ 

^1 

_ 

3 

i 

0-27 

O'2O 

_ 

0-40 

0-0572 

1-272 

9'44 

0-24 

27 

i 

0-36 

0-29 

— 

°"54 

0*1041 

1-696 

7-075 

0-42 

18 

i 

0-49 

0*42 

— 

0-67 

0-1916 

2-I2I 

0-56 

18 

i 

0*62 

0-54 

0*24 

0-84 

0-3048 

2-652 

4-502 

0-85 

H 

0-82 

0-73 

0-42 

1-05 

0-5333 

3'299 

14 

i 

1-04 

0-95 

0-58 

1-31 

0-8627 

4-134 

2-903 

1-67 

Hi 

ij 

1-38 

1-27 

0-88 

1-66 

1-496 

5-2I5 

2-301 

2-25 

III 

ji 

1-61 

1-49 

i  -08 

1-90 

2-038 

2-01 

2-69 

ill 

2" 

2-06 

i'93 

1-49 

2-37 

3-355 

7-461 

i'6n 

3-66 

ul 

•2* 

2*46 

2-31 

175 

2-87 

4-783 

9-032 

1-328 

577 

8 

3 

3"°6 

2-89 

2-28 

3-50 

7-388 

10-996 

1-091 

8 

3'54 

3'35 

2-71 

4-00 

9-887 

12-566 

°'955 

9-05 

8 

4~ 

4-02 

3*81 

3"!3 

4-50 

12-730 

H-I37 

0-849 

10-72 

8 

5 

5-04 

— 

— 

19-990 

I7-475 

0*629 

14-56 

8 

6 

6"oo 

— 

— 

6*62 

28-889 

20-813 

o-577 

18-77 

8 

7 

7-02 

— 

— 

7-62 

38-737 

23*954 

0-505 

23-41 

8 

8 

7-98 

— 

— 

8-62 

50-039 

27-096 

o-444 

28-35 

8 

9 

9-00 

— 

— 

9-68 

63-633 

3o;433 

o-394 

34-07 

8 

10 

lO'OI 

~ 

10-75 

78-838 

o-355 

40-64 

8 

STRENGTH  OF  ICE. 

Ice  of  a  thickness  of  i-|  inch  will  support  a  man ; 
4  inches  in  thickness  will  support  cavalry;  5  inches  in 
thickness  will  support  an  84-pound  cannon ;  10  inches  in 
thickness  will  support  a  multitude ;  18  inches  in  thickness 
will  support  a  railroad  train. 


GENERAL  TABLES   AND  MEMORANDA. 


169 


FRICTION  IN  PIPES. 

Friction  loss  in  pounds  pressure  for  each  100  feet  in  length  of  cast-iron  pipe 
discharging  the  stated  quantities  per  minute. — (G.  A.  Ellis,  C.E.} 


TS* 

M   HI   pj   (N   roro'^-^-i-oc^O    P*   iot^-0  icO   »o  0 
HMHHPlPiroro1^' 

H"  t-T  M"  M"  cT  pT  oT  co  ro  •«?  i?  ICNO" 

00 

ICH  ooo   O   -^-wvo   t>.O  •*•  ro  rooo  ic 
8H    pi   pj    rt-  10  r^co   O  ic  O  XO   ro  O  oo 
o  o  o  o  ,o  p  jB  .*  *•  s  H  »  *  y> 

b  b  b  b  b  b  b  b  b  b  b  b  b  o  o 

ON  ONNO  \0   M  ic  ro  rooo   t^  ic  p)   ro  o 

o 

8   O   O°  o"  S"  O^  M   IT'S  *S  ^ro  ^  ?)  K 

H 

oooooooooooooo 

V 

H   ro^o    O^  rooo   ro  ONNO    M    r>  M 
0    0   p    p    M   r    (N   .cV  50  ICvp   <0N 

b  o  b  b  o  o  o  o  o  o  o  b 

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1C  I^ 

88  o 

b  b  o 

p)   -^oo   ro  O   O"NOO   ON  ro  r^  M 
0   0    0   H   PI   p)   co^vo   t^  M 

b  b  b  b  b  b  b  o  b  b  M 

M    ro  -rt-  to^O 
00000 

30   O>oo    M   ON  O   10  ro 
O    O    M    ro-^-c^ONP4 

00000 

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s  * 

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10  t^  O   rh  fxvo   t-x  O   »C 
Q   Q   M   H   M   (N   ro  ic*O 

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ON  H   ro  H   ON  ic  P)   ON\O   ic  ro 
O    N    tf)  'CO    ON  M  00  NO  NO    t^ 

0   ?ro 

u? 

OOOO    OO    MMNCO-* 

0   txj 

ft, 

'5.       *. 

2  a  2-a-B-sjsftSw'w  S'R.s  s  s, 

O    O 
Ooo 

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fffe 

8      *, 

c^^^-tcNgcScggc^S^^^^ 

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c/3       N 

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b  b  b  b  b  M  M  V)  '<N  ic  b>  V  M  co  r^  '^. 

t 

S^o^ovglQo^fc^S^oS 

H 

0   0   0   H   N   ro  ICNO  CO   0   Pj   ONCO_ 

5 

roO~o5-^-1-HP,ONM 

M 

0    H    Oi    Tf-vO    O^  N  vO    O    •^•MD 

^-NOTO    0    g    O^g    g 

H 

0    r°V°   2   ?  cT  ro^ 

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m^?cS  &)1?. 

•suojpjS 

-^ScT^^^^^^gpTls 

The  frictional  loss  is  increased  by  bends  or  irregularities  in  the  pipes. 


COMPARISON  BETWEEN  THE  SCALES  OF  CENTIGRADE  AND 
FAHRENHEIT  THERMOMETERS. 


Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

-73 

—  100-0 

-24 

-II-2 

-72 

-97-6 

-23 

-    9'3 

-95'8 

—  22 

-  7-6 

-70 

-94-0 

—  21 

—  5"8 

-69 

-92-2 

—  20 

-  4-0 

-68 

-90-4 

—  19 

—    2-2 

-67 

-88-6 

-18 

—    O*4 

-66 

-86-8 

-17 

4-    I'4 

-65 

-85-0 

-16 

+    3'2 

-64 
-63 

-83-2 
-81-4 

-14 

+   6-8 

-62 

-79-6 

-13 

+   8-6 

-61 

-77;8 

—  12 

+  10-4 

-60 

—  II 

+  12-2 

—59 

-74-2 

—  10 

+  H'O 

—58 

-72-4 

-  9 

+  I5-8 

-57 

-70-7 

-  8 

+  I7-6 

-56 

-68-8 

-  7 

+  19-4 

-55 

—  67-0 

-  6 

+  21-2 

-54 

~65:3 

—  5 

+  23-0 

-53 

-  4 

+  24-8 

-52 

-61-6 

-  3 

+  26-6 

-59-8 

+  28-4 

-5° 

-58-0 

—  i 

+  30-2 

-56-2 

—    0 

+  32-0 

148 

-54'4 

+   i 

+  33-8 

-47 

-52-6 

4-    2 

+  35*6 

-46 

-50-8 

+  3 

+  37-4 

-45 

-49-0 

4-   4 

+  39-2 

-44 

-47-2 

+   5 

+  41-0 

-43 

-45'4 

4     6 

+  42-8 

-42 

-43'6 

+   7 

+  446 

-41 

-41-8 

4-    8 

+  46-4 

-40 

—  40-0 

+  9 

+  48-2 

-39 

-38-2 

4  IO 

+  50-0 

-38 

-36-4 

411 

+  51-8 

-37 

-54-6 

4-12 

+  53-6 

-30 

-32-8 

+  13 

+  55'4 

-35 

—  31*0 

4-14 

+  57-2 

-34 

—  29-2 

4-  15 

+  59-0 

-33 

-32 

-27-4 
-25-6 

+  16 

4-17 

+  60-8 
+  62-6 

-23-8 

4-  18 

+  64-4 

—30 

—  22  -O 

4-19 

4-66-2 

-29 

—  20'2 

4-20 

+  68-0 

-28 

-18-4 

4-21 

+  69-8 

-27 

-16-6 

+  22 

+  71-6 

-26 

-14-8 

+  23 

+  73'4 

-25 

-13-0 

4-24 

4  75-2 

GENERAL  TABLES   AND   MEMORANDA.         I/ 1 

To  CONVERT  DEGREES  CENTIGRADE   OR   REAUMUR   INTO 
DEGREES  FAHRENHEIT,  ETC. 

Let  F  =  degrees  Fahrenheit ;  C  =  degrees  Centigrade ; 
and  R  =  degrees  Reaumur. 

*-f+3«      *-?  +  3.      c  =  ^i> 

R  =  4(F  -  32) 
9 

USEFUL  INFORMATION. 

A  gallon  of  water  contains  231  cubic  in.,  and  weighs 
81  Ibs.  (U.S.  standard). 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  contains  6J  gallons,  and  weighs 
62^  Ibs. 

The  friction  of  liquids  and  vapours  through  pipes  increases 
as  the  square  of  the  velocity. 

Sensible  heat  of  a  liquid  is  the  amount  indicated  by  the 
thermometer  when  immersed  in  it. 

Specific  heat  is  the  amount  of  heat  absorbed  to  produce 
sensible  heat. 

Latent  heat  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  for  the  con- 
version into  vapour  after  a  liquid  has  reached  its  boiling- 
point. 

The  latent  heat  of  vapour  is  given  off  whilst  condensing 
to  a  liquid ;  the  sensible  heat  is  retained. 

One  U.S.  gallon  =  0*133  cubic  ft. ;  0*83  imperial  gallon  ; 
3*8  litres. 

An  imperial  gallon  contains  277-274  cubic  in. ;  0*16  cubic 
ft.;  10*00  Ibs.;  i'2  U.S.  gallons;  4*537  litres. 

A  cubic  inch  of  water  =  0*03607  Ib. ;  0*003607  imperial 
gallon;  0-004329  U.S.  gallon. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  =  6*25  imperial  gallons  ;  7*48  U.S. 
gallons;  28*375  litres;  0-0283  cubic  metre;  62*35  lbs-  '> 
0*557  cwt. ;  0*028  ton. 

A  Ib.  of  water  =  27*72  cubic  in. ;  0*10  imperial  gallon; 
0*83  U.S.  gallon;  0-4537  kilo.^ 

One  cwt.  of  water  =  11*2  imperial  gallons;  13*44  U.S. 
gallons ;  i  *8  cubic  ft. 


172  REFRIGERATION    AND  ICE-MAKING. 

A  ton  of  water  =  35*84  cubic  ft.;  224  imperial  gallons; 
298*8  U.S.  gallons;  1,000  litres  (about);  i  cubic  metre 
(about). 

A  litre  of  water  =  0-22  imperial  gallon;  0-264  U.S.  gallon; 
6 1  cubic  in.;  0*0353  cubic  ft. 

A  cubic  metre  of  water  =220  imperial  gallons ;  264  U.S. 
gallons ;  1*308  cubic  yard ;  61-028  cubic  in. ;  35*31  cubic  ft. ; 
1,000  kilos;  i  ton  (nearly);  1,000  litres. 

A  kilo  of  water  =  2*204  Ibs. 

A  vedros  of  water  =  2*7  imperial  gallons. 

An  eimer  of  water  =  27  imperial  gallons. 

A  pood  of  water  =  3*6  imperial  gallons. 

A  Russian  fathom  =  7  ft. 

One  atmosphere  =  1*054  kilos  per  square  in. 

One  ton  of  petroleum  =  275  imperial  gallons  (nearly)  ; 
360  U.S.  gallons  (nearly). 

A  column  of  water  i  ft.  in  height  =  0-434  Ib.  pressure  per 
square  in. 

A  column  of  water  i  metre  in  height  =  i  "43  Ib.  pressure 
per  square  in. 

One  Ib.  pressure  per  square  in.  =  2*31  ft.  of  water  in 
height. 

One  U.S.  gallon  of  crude  petroleum  =  6-5  Ibs.  (about). 

According  to  Prof.  Siebel,  about  ten  B.T.U.  of  heat  will 
pass  through  a  square  foot  of  ice  i  inch  thick  in  one 
hour  for  every  degree  Fahrenheit  difference  between  the 
temperatures  on  either  side  of  the  ice  sheet. 

A  cubic  foot  of  ice  weighs  approximately  57*5  Ibs. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  frozen  at  32°  makes  1*0855  cubic  ft. 
of  ice. 

One  French  horse-power  =  75  kilogrammetres  (542*533 
foot-pounds)  per  second. 

One  force  de  cheval  =  0-986337  horse-power. 

One  horse-power  =  1-01385  force  de  cheval. 

Indicated  French  horse-power  =  3-49  D2PRS. 

D  =  dia.  of  cy.  in  metres,  S  =  length  of  stroke  in  metres, 
R  =  number  of  revs,  per  minute,  and  P  =  average  pressure 
on  piston  in  kilogs.  per  square  centimetre. 


GENERAL   TABLES   AND   MEMORANDA. 


173 


FRACTIONS  OF  AN  INCH  AND  DECIMAL  EQUIVALENTS. 


Fractions. 

Inch. 

Fractions. 

Inch. 

Fractions. 

Inch. 

I-32 

0-03125 

3-8 

o-375 

23-32 

0-71875 

1-16 

0*0625 

13-32 

0-40625 

3-4 

0-75 

3-32 

0-09375 

7-16 

Q'4375 

25-32 

0-78125 

1-8 

0-I25 

iS-32 

0-46875 

13-16 

0-8125 

5-32 

0-15625 

1-2 

0-5 

27-32 

°'84375 

3-i6 

0-1875 

17-32 

0-53125 

7-8 

0-875 

7-32 

0'2l875 

9-l6 

0-5625 

29-32 

0*90625 

1-4 

0*25 

19-32 

0-59375 

15-16 

0-9375 

9-32 

0-28125 

5-8 

0*625 

31-32 

0-96875 

5-16 

0-3125 

21-32 

0*65625 

11-32 

0-34375 

11-16 

0-6875 

COMPARISON  OF  BRITISH  MEASURES  WITH  U.S. 

United  States  Standard.  British  Standard. 

i  gill       =  0-833565  imperial  gill. 
4  gills     =  i  pint     =  0-833565        „        pint. 
2  pints    =  i  quart  =  0*833565        „        quart. 
4  quarts  =  i  gallon  =  0*833565        „        gallon. 

An  imperial  gallon  =  4*5435  litres  =  1-19968  U.S. 
standard  gallons. 

An  imperial  gallon  contains  (Act  of  Parliament,  1878) 
10  Ibs.  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  62°  Fahr.  Its  accepted 
volume  is  277*274  cubic  in. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES  OF  GASES. 


Gas  at  32°  and  below 
one  atmosphere. 

Specific  gravity. 

Cubic  feet  in 
ilb. 

Air         .  .        '£" 

I  -000 

12-38 

Ammonia 

0-589 

2I'OI 

Carbonic  acid 

1-529 

8-10 

Chlorine 

2-440 

5  '07 

Nitrogen 

0-978 

12-72 

Oxygen  .  .          . 

1-105 

1  1  -20 

1/4  REFRIGERATION  AND   ICE-MAKING. 

INFORMATION  REQUIRED  BY  MANUFACTURERS  TO  ENABLE 
THEM  TO  ESTIMATE  FOR  THE  COST  OF  A  REFRIGERATING 
PLANT. 

1.  The  length,  breadth,  and  height  of  the  cellars,  rooms, 
or  stores  to  be  refrigerated.    If  the  ceiling  or  roof  is  vaulted, 
the  height  to  the  centre  and  spring  of  the  arch  will  be 
required.      Full   particulars   of  the    means    of  insulation 
adopted,  or,  if  none  exist,  of  the  materials  from  which  the 
chambers  are  built. 

2.  Whether   it   is   desired  to   refrigerate   on   the  direct 
expansion,  on   the   brine  circulation,    or  on  the   cold-air 
system. 

3.  The  temperature  desired  to  be  maintained  in  each 
chamber  or  store. 

4.  The  nature  of  the  substance  which  it  is  desired  to 
refrigerate. 

5.  In  the  case  of  a  packing-house,  or  an  abattoir,  the 
largest  number  of  carcases  to  be  cooled  daily,  and  their 
average  weight. 

6.  In  the  case  of  a  freezing  chamber  for  beef,  mutton, 
or  other  produce,   the  number   of  carcases,  etc.,   to  be 
frozen  in  each  24  hours,  and  their  average  weight. 

7.  When  a  liquid  is  to  be  cooled,  the  number  of  gallons, 
or  barrels,  to  be  dealt  with  per  hour,  and  from  what  tem- 
perature down. 

8.  The  nature,  quantity,  and  temperature  of  the  water 
supply  available  for  use. 

9.  Rough  dimensioned  plan  of  the  establishment,  show- 
ing the  most  convenient  spot  to  locate  the  refrigerating 
machine. 

INFORMATION  REQUIRED  BY  MANUFACTURERS  TO  ENABLE 
THEM  TO  ESTIMATE  FOR  THE  COST  OF  AN  ICE-MAKING 
PLANT. 

1.  Number  of  tons  of  ice  that  it  is  desired  to  produce  per 
24  hours. 

2.  If  clear,  crystal,  transparent  ice  is  required,  or  whether 
opaque  ice  will  do  for  the  purpose. 

3.  The  nature,  quantity,  and  temperature  of  the  supply 
of  water  procurable  for  use. 


GENERAL  TABLES   AND   MEMORANDA. 


175 


4.  Whether  there  is  an  available  source  of  steam  supply 
on  the  premises ;  and  if  spare  steam-power,  then  how  many 
horse-powers  could  be  utilised. 

5.  When   the  installation   is   to  be  erected   in  existing 
buildings,  a  rough  dimensioned  plan  of  same. 

6.  Where  an  estimate  of  cost  of  making  ice  is  required, 
price  and  quality  of  fuel ;  wages  of  engine-drivers,  stokers, 
and  common  labourers,  for  12  hours  day  work,  and  for  12 
hours  night  work ;  if  water  has  to  be  bought,  cost  of  same. 

VARIOUS  HORSE-POWERS  IN  USE. 


Kilogrammetres 
per  second. 

Foot-pounds  per 
minute. 

Ratio  to 
British  H.P. 

Austria 

76-II9 

33><>34 

I'OOI 

Baden 

75"ooo 

32,552 

0-986 

France 

75-000 

32,552 

0-986 

Great  Britain 

76-041 

33,000 

I  -000 

Hanover     . 

75-36i 

32,705 

0-990 

Prussia 

75'325 

32,689 

0-990 

Saxony 

75*045 

32,568 

0-986 

Wurtemburg 

75-240 

32,637 

0-988 

EXPANSION  IN  STEAM  PIPES. 

The  expansion  and  contraction  of  steam  pipes  is  about 
i  inch  in  50  feet  by  reason  of  temperature  variations.  This 
expansion  and  contraction  may  be  provided  for  in  the  case 
of  long  lengths  of  pipe  between  fixed  abutments,  by  spring 
bends  or  lengths,  or  by  expansion  sockets.  In  the  latter 
case,  guard  bolts  should  be  fitted  to  prevent  the  pipes  from 
being  drawn  out  of  the  sockets. 


INDEX. 


A  BSORPTION  machines,  2-11 
J\     Air  co-efficients  for  efflux  of, 

from  orifices,  163 
Air  condensers,  open,  33 
Air,  compressed,  loss  of  pressure  by 

friction  of,  in  pipes,  162 
Air,  determination  of   moisture  in, 

75,  76 

Allowance  per  ton  capacity  to  be 
made   when   selecting  machinery 
for  refrigerating  purposes,  33 
Ammonia    and   carbonic  acid  ma- 
chines, comparative  tests  of,  22 
anhydrous,   boiling    point   and 

latent  heat  of,  36,  37 
apparatus,  leaks  in,  145 
compression  machines,  manage- 
ment of,  141-144 
compression  plant,  efficiency  of, 
under  different  conditions,  61 
gas,  cubic  feet  of,  per  minute  to 
produce  one  ton  of  refrigera- 
tion per  day,  75 
gas,  refrigerating  effect  of  one 
cubic   foot  at    different  con- 
densing and    suction  (back) 
pressures  in  B.T.  units,  59 
gas,  saturated,  properties  of,  44 
gas,    temperatures     to     which 
raised  by  compression,  41-44 
gas,  volume  of,  one  pound  at 
various  pressures  and   tem- 
peratures, 45-47 
gas,  volume  of,  at  high  tempe- 
ratures, 48 


Ammonia,  saturated,  "Wood's  table 

of,  49-58 

solubility  of,  in  water  at  differ- 
ent temperatures,  38-40,  143 
solubility  of,  in  water  at  different 
temperatures  and  pressures,  39 
solutions,  yield    of   anhydrous 

ammonia  from,  41 
useful  efficiency  of,  50 
Amount     of     refrigerating     pipes 
necessary     for    chilling     storing 
and  freezing  chambers,  69-72 
refrigerating    required   in  cold 

storage,  69-72 
Analyser,  The,  43,  44 
Anhydrous  ammonia,  boiling  point 
and  latent  heat  of,  36,  37 

ammonia,  yield  of,  from    am- 
monia solutions,  41 
Apparatus,  ammonia,  leaks  in,  145 

refrigerating,  2-11 

Application  of  the  entropy  or  theta- 
phi  diagram  to  refrigerating  ma- 
chines, 1 1 -20 

Approximate    allowance    per    ton 
capacity  when  selecting  machine 
for  refrigerating  purposes,  33 
Aqueous  vapour  in  air,  table  of,  78 

vapour,  tension  of,  152 
Areas,  diameters  and  displacements, 

167 

Argentine  Republic,  mean  tempera- 
tures and  extremes  for  the  year, 
88,89 
Atmospheric  condensers,  33 


178 


INDEX. 


BARREL    pumps,    quantity    of 
water     discharged     by,     per 
minute,  165 

Boiling  point,  latent  heat,  etc.,  of 
anhydrous  ammonia,  36,  37 

point   of  liquids   available    for 
use  in  refrigerating  machines, 

35 

Box  or  tank,  freezing,  104,  105 

Breweries,  estimate  of  refrigeration 
in,  70,  72 

Brine  circulation,  loss  of  efficiency 
with,  23 

Brine  for  use  in  refrigerating  and  ice- 
making  plants,  105,  1 06 

British  measures,  comparison  of, 
with  U.S.  standards,  173 

British  thermal  unit,  161 

Butter  freezing  rates,  98 


CALCIUM  chloride,  solutions  of, 
V_,     106,  107 
Calorie,  161 

Can  ice,  freezing  times  for  different 
temperatures  and  thicknesses  of, 
in 
Cans,  ice,  time  required  for  water  to 

freeze  in,  1 1 1 
Capacities  of  ice-making  plants,  101 

refrigerating,  73 

Capacity,     etc.,     of    refrigerating 
machine,  variations  in,  74 

of  compressor  in  cubic  inches, 

27-30 

of  refrigerating  machines,  25,  26 
Carbonic  acid  and    ammonia  ma- 
chines, comparative  tests  of,  23 
acid  gas,  saturated,  properties 

of,  62 

acid  machines,  leaks  in,  145-147 
Cascade  system  of  producing  very 

low  temperatures,  23 
Ceilings  for    cold    stores   and   ice- 
houses, 133,  134 
Centrifugal  fans,  163 
Centrifugal  pumps,  power  required 

to  drive,  164 
Chemical  or  liquefaction  process,  2,  3 


Chloride  of  calcium,  solutions  of, 
106,  107 

of  calcium,  properties  of  solu- 
tion of,  107,  108 
of  sodium,  properties  of  solu- 
tion of,  1 08 

Cities  of  the  world,  mean  tempera- 
tures of  principal,  85-87 
Co -efficients  for  efflux  of  air  from 

orifices,  163 
Cold-air  machines,  5,  6 

air  machines,  formula  for  cal- 
culating  amount  of  air  de- 
livered by,  67 
air    machines,   results   of    test 

experiments  with,  22 
storage,  68-99 

storage,  amount  of  refrigerating 
pipes  necessary  for    chilling 
storage  and  freezing  cham- 
bers, 69 
storage  and  freezing  rates,  terms 

of  payment  of,  99 
storage  charges,  England,  90,  91 
storage  charges,  France,  99 
storage  charges,  United  States, 

91-95 

storage.of  various  articles,  tem- 
peratures adapted  for,  80-84 
stores,  divisional  partitions  for, 

130,  131 

stores,  floors  for,  131-133 

stores,  lighting,  149,  150 

stores,  walls  for,  127-130 

Combustion  of  various  fuels,  heat  of, 

J59 

Common  salt,  see  Chloride  of  sodium 
Comparative    efficiency    of   various 
refrigerating  machines,  20 

tests  as  to  efficiency  of  ammonia 
and  carbonic  acid  machines, 
23 

Comparison  between  scales  of  Cen- 
tigrade and  Fahrenheit  thermo- 
meters, 170 

of  British  measures  with  U.S. 

standards,  173 
of  various    hydrometer  scales, 

109,  no 

Composition  and  specific  heat  of 
victuals,  75 


INDEX. 


179 


Compressed  air,  loss  of  pressure  by 

friction  of,  in  pipes,  162 
Compression  machines,  9-11 

machines,  management  of  am- 
monia, 141-144 
plant,  efficiency  of,  under  differ- 
ent conditions,  6 1 
temperatures  to  which  ammonia 

gas  is  raised  by,  41-43 
Compressor,      capacity      in     cubic 
inches,  27-30 

mean  pressure  of,  31 

diagram,  interpretation  of,  137- 

141 

capacities,  relative,  23 
Condensers,  33 

Conditions  of  deposit  and  regula- 
tions, cold  storage,  91 
Constant  of  gases,  physical,  153 
Convert    degrees,     Centigrade     or 
Reaumur,   into    Fahrenheit,    to, 
171 

Cooler,  fore,  38 
Cooling  wort,  experiments  in,  151 

power,  effective,  21-23 
Cork,  see  Insulation 
Correct  relative   humidity  in  egg- 
rooms,  99 

Cubic  feet  of  ammonia  gas  per 
minute  to  produce  one  ton  of 
refrigeration  per  day,  75 

feet  of  gas  that  must  be  pumped 
per  minute,  at  different  con- 
denser and  suction  pressures, 
to  produce  one  ton  of  refrige- 
ration in  24  hours,  32 
Cubic  feet  of  space  per  running  foot 

of  2 -inch  pipe,  70 
feet  covered  by  one  foot  of  I- 

inch  iron  pipe,  71 

Curves,  efficiency,  of  perfect  re- 
frigerating machine,  64 


DAILY  report,  suggested  form  of 
engineer's,  148 
Decimal  equivalents  of  fractions  of 

an  inch,  173 

Deep  wells,  power  required  to  raise 
water  from,  165 


Degrees,  Centigrade  or  Reaumur,  to 
convert  into  Fahrenheit,  171 

Deposit  and  regulations,  cold  stor- 
age conditions,  91 

Diagram,  compressor,  interpretation 
of,  137-141 

Diameters,  areas  and  displacements, 
166 

Dimensions  of  ice-making  tanks,  102 
of  standard  wrought-iron  pipes, 
1 68 

Displacements,  see  Diameters,  areas, 
etc. 

Divisional  partitions  for  cold  stores, 

130,131    . 
Door  insulation,  134 
Double  pipe  condenser,  34 


T7FFECTIVE     cooling     power 
\_j     obtainable  from  expenditure  of 
one  pound  of  steam  in  theoreti- 
cally perfect  machines,  22 
Efficiency,  comparative,  of  various 
refrigerating  machines,  22 
of  ammonia,  useful,  60 
of  ammonia,  compression  plant, 
under  different  conditions,  6 1 
Efficiency  curves  of  perfect  refrigera- 
ting machine,  64 
Efficiency  of  ether  machines,  66,  67 

of  hydraulic  ram,  164 
Efflux    of   air    from     orifices,    co- 
efficients of,  163 
Egg  freezing  rates,  98 

rooms,    correct  relative  humi- 
dity in,  79 
Engineer's  daily  report,  suggested 

form  of,  148 

Entropy  or  theta  -  phi  diagram, 
application  of,  to  refrigerating 
machines,  11-20 

Ether  machines,  efficiency  of,  66,  67 
properties  of  saturated  vapour 

of,  6$ 

Evaporation  of  liquids,  34 
Expansion  in  steam  pipes,  175 
Experiments  in  wort  cooling,  151 
Extreme  limits  of  cubic  feet  of  space 
per  running  foot  of  2 -in.  pipe,  70 


i8o 


INDEX. 


FANS,  centrifugal,  163 
power  required  for,  163 
proportions  of,  163 
Fish,  freezing  rates  for,  97,  98 
Flooring  for  cold  stores,  131-133 

for  ice  houses,  133 
Fore  cooler,  38 
Form  of  engineer's    daily  report, 

suggested,  148 

Formula  for  ascertaining  units  of 
refrigeration  required  to  carry  off 
heat  radiated  through  walls,  etc., 
125 

Formula  for  calculating  amount  of 
air  delivered  per   hour  by  cold- 
air  machines,  67 
Fractions  of  an  inch  and  decimal 

equivalents,  173 
Freezing  mixtures,  4,  5 
Freezing  rates  for  butter,  98 
rates  for  eggs,  98 
rates   for  fish  and  meats,   97, 

98 
rates  for  poultry,   game,   fish, 

meats,  etc.,  96-99 
rates,  summer,  97 
tank  or  box,  104,  105 
Friction  in  pipes,  169 

of  compressed  air  in  pipes,  loss 

of  pressure  by,  162 
of  air  in  tubes,  162 

GAME,  rate  for  freezing  in  un- 
broken packages,  96,  97 
Gases,  physical  constant  of,  153 
specific  gravities  of,  35,  173 
specific  heat  of,  161 
General    tables    and    memoranda, 

I5I-I75 

Gravities,  specific,  and  percentages 
of  ammonia,  35 


H 


EAT,  mechanical  theory  of,  1-3 
of  combustion  of  various  fuels, 

J59 

specific,  of  gases,  161 
specific,  of  liquids,  161 
specific,  of  metals,  160 
specific,    of   water  at    various 

temperatures,  160 


Horse-powers,  various,  172,  175 
Humidity  of  air,  relative,  77 
Hydraulic  ram,  efficiency  of,  164 
ram,  proportions  of  the  supply 
pipes   and  delivery  pipes    to 
the  number  of  gallons,  164 
Hydrometer  scales,  comparison  of 

various,  109,  no 
Hydrometers,  78 


ICE-houses,  ceilings  for,  133,  134 
houses,  flooring  for,  133 
making,  loo-Hi 
making  and  storing  ice,  100-114 
making  plants,  brine  for  use  in, 

105,  106 

making  plant,  information  re- 
quired to  estimate  for,   174, 

175 

making  plants,  sizes  and  capa- 
cities of,  101 

making  tanks,  dimensions  of,io2 
storing,  111-114 
strength  of,  168 

Inch,  decimal  equivalents   of  frac- 
tions of,  173 

Information  required  to  estimate  for 
cost  of  ice-making  plant,  174,  175 
Information  required  to  estimate  for 
cost  of  refrigerating  plant,  1 74 

useful,  171,  172 
Insulation,  115-135 
door,  134 
tank,  135 
window,  134 

Interpretation  of  compressor    dia- 
gram, 137-141 


LATENT  heat,  boiling  point,  etc., 
of  anhydrous  ammonia,  36,  37 
Leaks  in  ammonia  apparatus,  145 
in  carbonic  acid  machines,  145- 

H7 

Lighting  cold  stores,  149,  150 
Lineal  feet  of  i-inch  pipe  required 

per  cubic  foot  of    cold  storage 

space,  70 


INDEX. 


181 


Liquefaction   process,  chemical  or, 

.2»3 
Liquid  receiver,  60 

Liquids,  evaporation  of,  34 
specific  heat  of,  161 

Liquor  ammonia,  strength  of,  40 

Loss  of  efficiency  with  brine  circula- 
tion,  23,  74 

Loss  of  pressure  by  friction  of  com- 
pressed air  in  pipes,  162 

Low   temperatures,  production   of, 
24-26 

Lubrication  of  refrigerating  machi- 
nery, 147 


TV  MACHINERY,  refrigerating,  lu- 
IVl   brication  of,  147 
Machines,  absorption,  7-9 
carbonic  acid,  145-147 
cold-air,  5,  6 
compression,  8-n 
leaks  in  ammonia,  145 
vacuum,  6,  7 

Management  of  ammonia  compres- 
sion machines,  141-144 
of  refrigerating  machinery,  136- 

148 

Manufacturers,  information  required 
by,  to  enable  them  to  estimate  for 
the  cost  of  an  ice  plant,  174,  175 
Manufacturers  to  estimate  for  the 

cost  of  refrigerating  plant,  174 
Mean  pressure  of  compressor,  31 
temperatures  of  principal  cities 

of  the  world,  85-87 
temperatures  and  extremes   of 
the    year,    Argentine     Re- 
public, 88,  89 

Meats,  freezing,  rates  for,  97,  98 
Mechanical  theory  of  heat,  1-3 
Memoranda,  general  tables  and,  151- 

175 

Metals,  specific  heat  of,  160 
Mineral  water,  rule  for  ascertaining 

quality  of,  103 

Mixtures,  table  of  freezing,  4,  5 
Moisture  in  air,   determination  of, 


NON-conductive  values  of  various 
substances,  results  of  tests  as  to, 
116-125 
Number  of  cubic  feet  covered  by 

one  foot  of  i-inch  pipe,  71 
covered  by  one  ton,  refrigerat- 
ing  capacity    for    24  hours, 

71 

of  cubic  feet  of  gas  that  must 
be  pumped  per  minute,  at 
different  condenser  and  suc- 
tion pressures,  to  produce  one 
ton  of  refrigeration  in  24 
hours,  32 


0 


PEN- AIR  condensers,  33 
Orifices,  co-efficients  for  efflux 
of  air  from,  163 


PARTITIONS  for  cold    stores, 
1     divisional,  130,  131 
Payment  of  cold  storage  and  freez- 
ing rates,  terms  of,  99 
Percentages,  handy  rule,  159 

of  ammonia,  see  Specific  gravities 

and  percentages 
Physical  constant  of  gases,  153 
Pictet's  liquid,  67 
Pipes,  friction  of  water  in,  169 

loss  of  pressure  by  friction  of 

compressed  air  in,  162 
Poultry,  game,  etc.,  rates  for  freez- 
ing in  unbroken  packages,  96,  97 

storing  unfrozen,  97 
Power  required  for  fans,  163 

required    to    drive    centrifugal 

pumps,  164 
required    to  raise    water  from 

deep  wells,  165 

Pressure  and  boiling  point  of  liquids 
available  for  use  in  refrigerating 
apparatus,  35    5 
loss  of,  by  friction  of  compressed 

air  in  pipes,  162 
of  compressor,  mean,  31 
of  water,  167 

ratio  of,  sulphurous  acid,  am- 
monia, and  carbonic  acid,  23 


182 


INDEX. 


Principal  cities  of  the  world,  mean 
temperatures  of,  85-87 

liquids   employed   in  refrigera- 
tion, qualities  of,  1 1 
Production  of   very  low   tempera- 
tures, 24,  25 

Properties    of    saturated    ammonia 
gas,  44 

of  saturated  carbonic  acid  gas, 

62 

of  saturated  steam,  154-158 
Proportions  of  fans,  163 
Psychrometers,  76 
Pumps,   barrel,    quantity  of    water 

discharged  per  minute  by,  165 
Pure  water,  103 


QUALITIES  of  principal  liquids 
^   employed  in  refrigeration,  1 1 
Quantity  of  water  discharged   per 
minute  from  barrel  pumps,  165 


RADIATION      through     walls, 
etc.,  125,  126 
Ram,  see  Hydraulic  ram 
Rates  for  freezing   poultry,   game, 

etc.,  96-99 

Ratio    of    pressure    of    sulphurous 
acid,  ammonia,  and  carbonic  acid, 

21 

Reagents,  testing  by,  104 
Receiver,  liquid,  60 
Refrigerating  apparatus,  2-11 

and  ice-making  plants,  brine  for 
use  in,  105,  106 

capacities,  72 

capacity  in  B.T.U.  required,  per 
cubic  foot  of  storage  room, 
in  24  hours,  72 

effect  of  one  cubic  foot  of  am- 
monia gas  at  different  con- 
denser and  suction  (back) 
pressures  in  B.T.  units,  89 

machinery,  lubrication  of,  147 

.machinery,  testing  and  manage- 
ment of,  136,  137 

machines,  capacity  of,  25,  26 

machines,  comparative  efficiency 
of,  22 


Refrigerating  machines,    variations 
in  capacity  of,  74 

plant,  information  required   to 

estimate  for,  174 
Refrigeration  in  general,  2-11 
Regenerative  process  or  self-inten- 
sive refrigeration,  23-25 
Relative  humidity  of  air  per  cent.,  77 
humidity  in  egg-rooms,  correct, 

79 

Rent  of  rooms,  98 
Report,  suggested  form  of  engineer's 

daily,  148 

Results  of   test   experiments  with 
cold-air  machines,  22 

of  tests  to  determine  the  non- 
conductive  values  of  different 
materials,  116-127 
Rooms,  rent  of  cold  storage,  98 
Rough  estimate  of  refrigeration  in 
breweries,  73 


SALT,  common,  see  Chloride  of 
sodium 

Saturated  ammonia  gas,  properties 
of,  44 

ammonia,    Wood's    table    of, 

49-58 
carbonic  acid  gas,  properties  of, 

62 

steam,  properties  of  154-158 
sulphur  dioxide  gas,  63 
vapour  of  ether,  properties  of, 

65 

Scales  of  Centigrade  and  Fahrenheit 

thermometers,  comparison  of,  170 

Self-intensive      refrigeration,     23- 

25 
Sizes  and  capacities  of  ice-making 

plants,  101 

Slag-wool,  see  Insulation 
Sodium,  properties   of  solution   of 

chloride  of,  108 

Solubility  of  ammonia  in  water  at 
different  temperatures,  38-40 
of  ammonia  in  water  at  different 
temperatures  and  pressures, 
39 


INDEX. 


183 


Solutions  of  chloride  of  calcium,  96, 

97 

of   chloride   of  calcium,    pro- 
perties of,  107,  1 08 
of  chloride  of  sodium,  properties 

of,  108 
Specific  gravities  and  percentages  of 

ammonia,  35 

Specific  gravities  of  gases,  35,  173 
Specific  heat  and  composition   of 
victuals,  79 

heat  of  gases,  161 
heat  of  liquids,  161 
heat  of  metals,  etc.,  160 
heat  of  water  at  various  tem- 
peratures, 1 60 

Standard  wrought-iron  pipes,  dimen- 
sions of,  1 68 

Steam  pipes,  expansion  in,  175 
Steam  saturated,  properties  of,  154, 

J58 
Storage  charges,  cold,  England,  90, 

91 

charges,  cold,   United  States, 

92-95 

cold,  68-99 

Stores  cold,  ceilings  for,  133,  134 
cold,  divisional  partitions  for, 

130.  I31 

cold,  flooring  for,  131-133 
cold,  walls  for,  127-130 
Storing  ice,  111-114 

unfrozen  poultry,  etc.,  97 
Strength  of  ice,  168 
Strength  of  liquor  ammonia,  40 
Submerged  condensers,  33 
Suggested  form  of  engineer's  daily 

report,  148 
Sulphur  dioxide,  useful  efficiency  of, 

64 
Summer  freezing  rates,  97 


TABLES  and  memoranda,  gene- 
ral, 151-175 
Tank  insulation,  135 
Tank  or  box,  freezing,  104,  105 
Temperatures  adopted  for  the  cold 
storage  of  various  articles,  80-84 
mean,  of  principal  cities  in  the 
wprld,  85-87 


Temperatures,  mean  and  extremes 
of  year,  Argentine  Republic, 
88,89 

to  which  ammonia  gas  is  raised 
by  compression,  41-43 

Tension  of  aqueous  vapour,  152 

Terms  of  payment  of  cold  storage 
and  freezing  rates,  99 

Testing,  136,  137 

Testing  and  management  of  refrige- 
rating machinery,  136-148 

Testing  by  reagents,  104 

Tests  of  ammonia  and  carbonic  acid 
machines,  comparative,  23 

Tests  to  determine  the  non-conduc- 
tive values  of  various  substances, 
116-127 

Theory  of  heat,  mechanical,  i,  3 

Thermometers,  comparison  between 
scales  of  Centigrade  and  Fahren- 
heit, 170 

Theta-phi  diagram,  application  of, 
to  refrigerating  machines,  11-20 

Time  required  for  water  to  freeze  in 
ice  cans,  1 1 1 

Transmission  of  heat  through  insula- 
ting structures,  115,  126 

Tubes,  friction  of  air  in,  162 


T  TNFROZEN      poultry,       etc., 
U     storing,  97 

United  States  Standards,  compari- 
son of  British  measures  with,  173 
Units  of  heat,  161 
Units  of  refrigeration  to  carry  off 

radiation  through  wall,  125 
Useful  efficiency  of  ammonia,  60 
efficiency  of  sulphur  dioxide,  64 
information,  171,  172 


VACUUM  machines,  7,  8 
Vapour,  aqueous,  in  air,  78 
Vapour,  aqueous,  tension  of,  152 
of  ether,  properties  of  saturated, 

65 

Variation  in  capacity  of  refrigerating 
machine,  74 


1 84 


INDEX. 


Various       articles,       temperatures 

adapted  for  cold  storage  of,  80-84 

fuels,  heat  of  combustion  of,  159 

hydrometer  scales,  comparison 

of,  109 
Very  low  temperatures,  production 

of,  23-25 

Victuals,  specific  heat  and  composi- 
tion of,  79 

Volume  of  ammonia   gas  at    high 
temperatures,  48 

of  one  pound  of  ammonia  gas 
at  various  pressures  and  tem- 
peratures, 45-48 


WALLS  for  cold  stores,  127-130 
radiation  through,  1 25,  126 
Water,  friction  of,  in  pipes,  169 
Water,  mineral,  rule  for  ascertaining 
quality  of,  103,  104 


Water  power  required  to  raise  from 

deep  wells,  165 
pressure  of,  167 
pure,  103 
quantity  discharged  per  minute 

by  barrel  pumps,  165 
solubility  of  ammonia  in,  38-40, 

143 

specific  heat  of  at  various  tem- 
peratures, 1 60 
time  required  for,  to  freeze  in 

ice  cans,  m 
Window  insulation,  135 
Wood's  table  of  saturated  ammonia 

gas,  49-58 

Wort  cooling,  experiments  in,  151 
Wrought-iron    pipe,      dimensions, 
etc.,  of,  1 68 


"\  riELD   of  anhydrous    ammonia 
j[      from  ammonia  solutions,  41 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 


PRINTED  BY   WILLIAM  CLOWES  AND  SONS,   LIMITED,  LONDON  AND  BECCLES. 


YB 


53805 


